Luke Haile

The Effects of 12 Weeks of Step Aerobics Training on Functional Fitness of Elderly Women

Hallage, T, Krause, MP, Haile, L, Miculis, CP, Nagle, EF, Reis, RS, and Da Silva, SG. The effects of 12 weeks of step aerobics training on functional fitness of elderly women. J Strength Cond Res 24(8): 2261-2266, 2010-The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 12 weeks of step aerobics (SA) training on the functional fitness of apparently healthy older women. Thirteen previously sedentary elderly women (mean age 63.14 years) participated in this study. Subjects performed 3 training sessions per week for 30-60 minutes per session. All measurements were assessed at baseline, after 12 weeks of training (posttest), and after 1 month of detraining. Assessments included the evaluation of body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), strength of the upper (arm-curl [AC] test) and lower body (30-second chair-stand test [CS]), dynamic balance and agility (8 foot up and go [8 ft]), flexibility (chair sit-and-reach [CSR]), and cardiorespiratory fitness (6-minute walk test [6MW]). Step aerobics significantly improved all functional fitness components except for BMI. The 12 weeks of SA promoted a large effect size in the following measurements: WC (d = 1.6); CSR (d = 1.51); CS (d = 1.49); AC (d = 1.41); 8 ft (d = 1.32); and 6MW (d = 1.06) (p < 0.05). These results indicate that 12 weeks of SA had a positive effect on the functional fitness components of these older women. Furthermore, these findings were confirmed by the reverse effect observed after 1 month of detraining, except for upper body strength (AC test). In conclusion, 12 weeks of SA training can promote improvements in the functional fitness of apparently healthy older women. Therefore, SA can be considered an effective exercise modality to prevent the loss of functional fitness and its associated consequences.

USE OF RATINGS OF PERCEIVED EXERTION TO ANTICIPATE TREADMILL TEST TERMINATION IN PATIENTS TAKING BETA-BLOCKERS^

This investigation identified a perceptually-based “warning zone” that can be used to anticipate termination of treadmill tests administered to individuals taking beta-blockers. The use of ratings of perceived exertion to anticipate test termination may be valuable given the attenuation of heart rate associated with the use of this class of medication. Sixteen men with coronary artery disease participated in this investigation. Ratings of perceived exertion (Borg 6–20 Scale) were estimated during the last 15 sec. of each minute of a progressively incremented treadmill test. Tests were terminated when participants indicated they were too fatigued to continue. The time-to-test termination was determined from the point that participants estimated a rating of 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 in order to determine the rating that was less than or equal to the time associated with a single exercise stage. A rating of 14 was associated with impending termination, which can be used as a “warning zone.” The time to termination corresponding to a rating of 14 was 153.1 sec. (SD = 27.0). Participants exercised for 153.1 sec. (SE=27.0) after estimating a rating of 14. Once a rating of 14 is reached, volitional test termination will occur before the next exercise stage is completed.

Validation of the Omni Scale of Thermal Sensations

Concurrent and construct validation of the OMNI Scale of Thermal Sensations was examined in a sample of 16 adult men and 5 adult women. Concurrent validity was established by regressing OMNI ratings of thermal sensation against core and skin temperatures obtained during treadmill walking while wearing firefighter thermal-protective clothing in temperatures between 33 and 35°C. Construct validity was established by regressing the OMNI scale against a construct-specific visual analogue scale. OMNI scale responses accounted for statistically significant variance in both skin temperature and core temperature (48% and 51%, respectively) and visual analogue scale responses (84%). Concurrent and construct validity were established for the OMNI Scale of Thermal Sensations in healthy adults performing treadmill walking while wearing fire fighter thermal protective clothing.

Identification of a Rating of Perceived Exertion-Based Warning Zone to Anticipate Graded Treadmill Test Termination

The purpose of this investigation was to identify a perceptually based warning zone to anticipate termination of Bruce treadmill tests. Apparently healthy adult women (n = 116) and men (n = 55) participated. The time to test termination was measured from the point during the treadmill test at which participants estimated a rating of perceived exertion of 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 using the Borg 6–20 scale to specify the rating of perceived exertion which was less than or equal to one exercise test stage. Women exercised for 141.9 ± 99.2 sec. after reporting a rating of perceived exertion of 14. Men terminated the treadmill test 120.1 ± 80.0 sec. after estimating their rating of perceived exertion to be 15, indicating volitional test termination will occur before the next exercise stage is completed. Accurate and timely prediction of test termination using ratings of perceived exertion may enhance the safety of exercise tests administered to apparently healthy adults and facilitate obtaining endpoint measures upon which to prescribe exercise intensity.

Perceived Exertion Scale Validation

Both concurrent and construct validity are important psychometric properties for perceived exertion scales applied in the clinical and performance settings. A graded exercise test that employs a perceptual estimation protocol is the standard for determination of perceived exertion scale validity for both aerobic and resistance exercise. Both undifferentiated and differentiated RPE can be measured using a scale validity experiment, but special attention should be paid to determination of the dominant RPE signal during exercise. Concurrent and construct validity evidence has been shown for both undifferentiated and differentiated RPE in various sample populations performing aerobic and resistance exercise. A perceived exertion scale that demonstrates concurrent and construct validity can be applied to both exercise testing and prescription in hospital and field settings. Such applications can include the prediction of impending exercise test termination and exercise intensity self-regulation. The primary purpose of this laboratory experiment is to establish concurrent and construct validity for an OMNI RPE Scale. Secondary purposes include the comparison of concurrent validity evidence between the OMNI RPE Scale and the Borg Scale and to determine differentiated RPE signal dominance.

The Affective Response to Exercise

An affective response (AR) can be defined as the general psychological state of an individual, including but not limited to emotions and mood, within a given situation. In its most basic context, AR is used to describe an individual’s subjective experience (i.e., intrapersonal or experiential core) of all valenced responses; i.e., those that involve the potential for both positive and negative dimensions. Similar to RPE and exercise-induced muscle pain responses, individuals can rate the AR to exercise and PA by selecting a number from a range of numerical categories (both positive and negative) displayed on an affect scale. Scales designed to measure AR, such as the Feeling Scale (FS), include verbal descriptors placed in juxtaposition to numerical categories representing the range of affective responsiveness from the most negative feelings to the most positive feelings regarding the exercise situation. The Feeling Scale has been used to assess the range of overall feelings an individual may experience before, during and after PA. In addition, scales have been designed to measure specific affective domains, such as enjoyment during PA. The measurement of AR and enjoyment during exercise, along with perceived exertion, may be crucial to identifying the types of exercise programs that provide health-fitness benefits and promote psychological well-being.

Self-Selected Intensity of Four Different Modes of Aerobic Exercise in Sedentary Adults: 1308 Board #116 May 31 9

The prescription of self-selected intensity (SSI) exercise has shown promise as a method to increase physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness. SSI allows control over the exercise stimulus, promotes positive affect, and is often an intensity known to induce health-fitness benefits. PURPOSE: To compare SSI between Treadmill, Elliptical, Upright Cycle, and Recumbent Cycle exercise in sedentary adults (<90 min of aerobic activity per week). METHODS: Eight subjects (6 w, 2 m; 33 ± 10 yr, VO2max: 36 ± 7 ml·kg·min) completed five submaximal exercise trials on separate days. The first four, one trial per mode completed in random order, were 30-min each: 5 min warm-up, 20 min SSI, 5-min cool-down. Oxygen consumption (VO2; ParvoMedics) and heart rate (HR; Polar) were monitored continuously. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE; OMNI Scale) and affective responses (AR; Feeling Scale) were collected every 5 min. The fifth trial was a submaximal graded treadmill test to predict VO2max. The mean values from the 20-min SSI were compared between modes using repeatedmeasures ANOVA. Pairwise comparisons were performed using Bonferroni corrections for significant ANOVAs. RESULTS: ANOVAs were significant for VO2 (F3,21=12.81, p<.05), %VO2Reserve (F3,21=6.41, p<.05) and Kcal (F3,21=7.43, p<.05). For each, Treadmill was significantly greater than Recumbent Cycle.

Cross-validation of Peak Oxygen Consumption Prediction Models From OMNI Perceived Exertion.

This study cross-validated statistical models for prediction of peak oxygen consumption using ratings of perceived exertion from the Adult OMNI Cycle Scale of Perceived Exertion. 74 participants (men: n=36; women: n=38) completed a graded cycle exercise test. Ratings of perceived exertion for the overall body, legs, and chest/breathing were recorded each test stage and entered into previously developed 3-stage peak oxygen consumption prediction models. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) between measured and predicted peak oxygen consumption from ratings of perceived exertion for the overall body, legs, and chest/breathing within men (mean±standard deviation: 3.16±0.52 vs. 2.92±0.33 vs. 2.90±0.29 vs. 2.90±0.26 L·min(-1)) and women (2.17±0.29 vs. 2.02±0.22 vs. 2.03±0.19 vs. 2.01±0.19 L·min(-1)) participants. Previously developed statistical models for prediction of peak oxygen consumption based on subpeak OMNI ratings of perceived exertion responses were similar to measured peak oxygen consumption in a separate group of participants. These findings provide practical implications for the use of the original statistical models in standard health-fitness settings.

Effects of Music on Perceptual and Affective Responses to Exercise

Whether exercising at a fitness facility, a local park or greenway, or at home, many people listen to music during their workout. This has become much more common as media devices have become smaller and more portable. Gone are the days of the “boom box” radio in the gym; replaced by high quality sound systems often found in modern fitness facilities. However, now many participants have their own personal music player. As MP3 players and smartphones replaced cassette tape and CD players, people became much more likely to take their music along during outside exercise, weather permitting. Anecdotally, people discuss how they cannot exercise without accompanying music. They can exercise longer and harder because the music causes the exercise to feel easier. They will exercise more often because the music helps them feel more positive. The music can even help them forget about the exercise they are performing. These anecdotal reports have been tested through systematic experimentation. Research has studied the effects of varying types of music, including preferred versus nonpreferred and synchronous versus asynchronous, on perceived exertion, affect, and performance outcomes. This chapter presents recent evidence for the ergogenic effects of music during exercise as they pertain to perceptual and affective responses. In addition, selected laboratory applications of the perceptual methodologies presented in previous chapters are proposed regarding their use to study the ergogenic effects of listening to music during exercise.

Application of Perceptual Models to the Measurement of Pain and Affective Responses to Exercise

Thus far, this laboratory manual has presented the conceptual models, background information, previous literature, and current methodologies for the measurement of perceived exertion responses to exercise. The application of perceptual responses to exercise assessment, prescription and program monitoring has been discussed. The study and development of the perceived exertion knowledge base, however, has expanded over the years to include other perceptual and psychosocial constructs, i.e., naturally occurring muscle pain, affect, and enjoyment. It has been argued that, in addition to an individual’s perception of physical exertion, variables such as pain, affect, and enjoyment may play an important role in determining the level of regular PA participation. Part 4 of this manual is titled Applied Perceptual and Psychosocial Research. This, the first chapter in Part 4, presents a series of power reviews, or brief summaries of the literature, concerning the measurement of naturally occurring muscle pain, affect, and enjoyment during exercise. Each section of this chapter can be linked retroactively to specific content presented previously regarding perceived exertion. Then, the remaining chapters of Part 4 present more extensive literature reviews for topics that are of growing interest concerning perceptual and psychosocial responses to exercise. These topics include the effects of caffeine supplementation, acute carbohydrate feeding, and music on perceptual, affective, and physiological responses to exercise.