M. Franz

The velocity field of sunspot penumbrae - I. A global view

Aims. We investigated the vertical penumbral plasma flow on small spatial scales using data recorded by the spectropolarimeter of the solar optical telescope onboard Hinode. Methods. We computed maps of apparent Doppler velocities by comparing the spectral positions of the Fe I 630.15 nm & Fe I 630.25 nm lines with the averaged line profiles of the quiet Sun. To visualize the flow pattern in the low photosphere, we used a bisector of the wing of the absorption lines. The small heliocentric angle (3° ≤ Θ ≤ 9°) of our data sets means that the horizontal component of the Evershed flow (EF) does not contribute significantly to the line shift. Results. We found that in the quiet Sun (QS), the area showing upflows is always larger than the one exhibiting downflows. In the penumbra, upflows dominate only at low velocities |v dop | ≤ 0.4 km s ―1 , while at higher velocities |v dop | ≥ 0.6 km s ―1 downflows prevail. Additionally, the maximal upflow velocity in penumbrae is lower, while the maximal downflow velocity is larger with respect to the QS velocities. Furthermore, on a spatial average, the penumbra shows a redshift, corresponding to a downflow of more than 0.1 km s ―1 . Upflows are elongated and appear predominately in the inner penumbra. Strong downflows with velocities of up to 9 km s ―1 are concentrated at the penumbra-QS boundary. They are magnetized and are rather round. The inner penumbra shows an average upflow, which turns into a mean downflow in the outer penumbra. The upflow patches in the inner penumbra and the downflow locations in the outer penumbra could be interpreted as the sources and the sinks of the EF. We did not find any indication of roll-type convection within penumbral filaments.

The velocity field of sunspot penumbrae - II. Return flow and magnetic fields of opposite polarity

Aims. We search for penumbral magnetic fields of opposite polarity and for their correspondence with downflows. Methods. We used spectropolarimetric HINODE data of a spot very close to disk center to suppress the horizontal velocity components as much as possible. We focus our study on 3-lobe Stokes V profiles. Results. From forward modeling and inversions, we show that 3-lobe profiles testify to the presence of opposite magnetic fields. They occur predominately in the mid and outer penumbra and are associated with downflows in the deep layers of the photosphere. Conclusions. Standard magnetograms show that only 4% of the penumbral area harbors magnetic fields of opposite polarity. If 3-lobe profiles are included in the analysis, this number increases to 17%.

Deep probing of the photospheric sunspot penumbra: no evidence of field-free gaps

Context. Some models for the topology of the magnetic field in sunspot penumbrae predict regions free of magnetic fields or with only dynamically weak fields in the deep photosphere. Aims. We aim to confirm or refute the existence of weak-field regions in the deepest photospheric layers of the penumbra. Methods. We investigated the magnetic field at log  τ 5 = 0 is by inverting spectropolarimetric data of two different sunspots located very close to disk center with a spatial resolution of approximately 0.4−0.45′′. The data have been recorded using the GRIS instrument attached to the 1.5-m solar telescope GREGOR at the El Teide observatory. The data include three Fe i lines around 1565 nm, whose sensitivity to the magnetic field peaks half a pressure scale height deeper than the sensitivity of the widely used Fe i spectral line pair at 630 nm. Before the inversion, the data were corrected for the effects of scattered light using a deconvolution method with several point spread functions. Results. At log  τ 5 = 0 we find no evidence of regions with dynamically weak ( B < 500 Gauss) magnetic fields in sunspot penumbrae. This result is much more reliable than previous investigations made on Fe i lines at 630 nm. Moreover, the result is independent of the number of nodes employed in the inversion, is independent of the point spread function used to deconvolve the data, and does not depend on the amount of stray light (i.e., wide-angle scattered light) considered.

Three-dimensional structure of a sunspot light bridge

Context. Active regions are the most prominent manifestations of solar magnetic fields; their generation and dissipation are fundamental problems in solar physics. Light bridges are commonly present during sunspot decay, but a comprehensive picture of their role in the removal of the photospheric magnetic field is still lacking. Aims. We study the three-dimensional configuration of a sunspot, and in particular, its light bridge, during one of the last stages of its decay. Methods. We present the magnetic and thermodynamical stratification inferred from full Stokes inversions of the photospheric Si i 10 827 A and Ca i 10 839 A lines obtained with the GREGOR Infrared Spectrograph of the GREGOR telescope at the Observatorio del Teide, Tenerife, Spain. The analysis is complemented by a study of continuum images covering the disk passage of the active region, which are provided by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory. Results. The sunspot shows a light bridge with penumbral continuum intensity that separates the central umbra from a smaller umbra. We find that in this region the magnetic field lines form a canopy with lower magnetic field strength in the inner part. The photospheric light bridge is dominated by gas pressure (high- β ), as opposed to the surrounding umbra, where the magnetic pressure is higher. A convective flow is observed in the light bridge. This flow is able to bend the magnetic field lines and to produce field reversals. The field lines merge above the light bridge and become as vertical and strong as in the surrounding umbra. We conclude that this occurs because two highly magnetized regions approach each other during the sunspot evolution.

Magnetic fields of opposite polarity in sunspot penumbrae

Context. A significant part of the penumbral magnetic field returns below the surface in the very deep photosphere. For lines in the visible, a large portion of this return field can only be detected indirectly by studying its imprints on strongly asymmetric and three-lobed Stokes V profiles. Infrared lines probe a narrow layer in the very deep photosphere, providing the possibility of directly measuring the orientation of magnetic fields close to the solar surface. Aims. We study the topology of the penumbral magnetic field in the lower photosphere, focusing on regions where it returns below the surface. Methods. We analyzed 71 spectropolarimetric datasets from Hinode and from the GREGOR infrared spectrograph. We inferred the quality and polarimetric accuracy of the infrared data after applying several reduction steps. Techniques of spectral inversion and forward synthesis were used to test the detection algorithm. We compared the morphology and the fractional penumbral area covered by reversed-polarity and three-lobed Stokes V profiles for sunspots at disk center. We determined the amount of reversed-polarity and three-lobed Stokes V profiles in visible and infrared data of sunspots at various heliocentric angles. From the results, we computed center-to-limb variation curves, which were interpreted in the context of existing penumbral models. Results. Observations in visible and near-infrared spectral lines yield a significant difference in the penumbral area covered by magnetic fields of opposite polarity. In the infrared, the number of reversed-polarity Stokes V profiles is smaller by a factor of two than in the visible. For three-lobed Stokes V profiles the numbers differ by up to an order of magnitude.

Upper chromospheric magnetic field of a sunspot penumbra: observations of fine structure

The fine-structure of magnetic field of a sunspot penumbra in the upper chromosphere is to be explored and compared to that in the photosphere. High spatial resolution spectropolarimetric observations were recorded with the 1.5-meter GREGOR telescope using the GREGOR Infrared Spectrograph (GRIS). The observed spectral domain includes the upper chromospheric He I triplet at 1083.0 nm and the photospheric Si I 1082.7 nm and Ca I 1083.3 nm spectral lines. The upper chromospheric magnetic field is obtained by inverting the He I triplet assuming a Milne-Eddington type model atmosphere. A height dependent inversion was applied to the Si I 1082.7 nm and Ca I 1083.3 nm lines to obtain the photospheric magnetic field. We find that the inclination of the magnetic field shows variations in the azimuthal direction both in the photosphere, but also in the upper chromosphere. The chromospheric variations remarkably well coincide with the variations in the inclination of the photospheric field and resemble the well-known spine and inter-spine structure in the photospheric layers of penumbrae. The typical peak-to-peak variations in the inclination of the magnetic field in the upper chromosphere is found to be 10-15 degree, i.e., roughly half the variation in the photosphere. In contrast, the magnetic field strength of the observed penumbra does not show variations on small spatial scales in the upper chromosphere. Thanks to the high spatial resolution observations possible with the GREGOR telescope at 1.08 microns, we find that the prominent small-scale fluctuations in the magnetic field inclination, which are a salient part of the property of sunspot penumbral photospheres, also persist in the chromosphere, although at somewhat reduced amplitudes. Such a complex magnetic configuration may facilitate penumbral chromospheric dynamic phenomena, such as penumbral micro-jets or transient bright dots.

Inference of magnetic fields in the very quiet Sun

Context. Over the past 20 yr, the quietest areas of the solar surface have revealed a weak but extremely dynamic magnetism occurring at small scales ( Aims. We present high-precision spectro-polarimetric data with high spatial resolution (0.4′′) of the very quiet Sun at 1.56 μ m obtained with the GREGOR telescope to shed some light on this complex magnetism. Methods. We used inversion techniques in two main approaches. First, we assumed that the observed profiles can be reproduced with a constant magnetic field atmosphere embedded in a field-free medium. Second, we assumed that the resolution element has a substructure with either two constant magnetic atmospheres or a single magnetic atmosphere with gradients of the physical quantities along the optical depth, both coexisting with a global stray-light component. Results. Half of our observed quiet-Sun region is better explained by magnetic substructure within the resolution element. However, we cannot distinguish whether this substructure comes from gradients of the physical parameters along the line of sight or from horizontal gradients (across the surface). In these pixels, a model with two magnetic components is preferred, and we find two distinct magnetic field populations. The population with the larger filling factor has very weak (~150 G) horizontal fields similar to those obtained in previous works. We demonstrate that the field vector of this population is not constrained by the observations, given the spatial resolution and polarimetric accuracy of our data. The topology of the other component with the smaller filling factor is constrained by the observations for field strengths above 250 G: we infer hG fields with inclinations and azimuth values compatible with an isotropic distribution. The filling factors are typically below 30%. We also find that the flux of the two polarities is not balanced. From the other half of the observed quiet-Sun area ~50% are two-lobed Stokes V profiles, meaning that 23% of the field of view can be adequately explained with a single constant magnetic field embedded in a non-magnetic atmosphere. The magnetic field vector and filling factor are reliable inferred in only 50% based on the regular profiles. Therefore, 12% of the field of view harbour hG fields with filling factors typically below 30%. At our present spatial resolution, 70% of the pixels apparently are non-magnetised.

On the surface structure of sunspots

A precise knowledge of the surface structure of sunspots is essential to construct adequate input models for helioseismic inversion tools. We summarize our recent findings about the velocity and magnetic field in and around sunspots using HINODE observation. To this end we quantize the horizontal and vertical component of the penumbral velocity field at different levels of precision and study the moat flow around sunspot. Furthermore, we find that a significant amount of the penumbral magnetic fields return below the surface within the penumbra. Finally, we explain why the related opposite polarity signals remain hidden in magnetograms constructed from measurements with limited spectral resolution (© 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Center to limb variation of penumbral Stokes V profiles

We investigated the horizontal and the vertical component of the Evershed flow (EF). To this end, we computed average Stokes V profiles for various velocity classes in penumbrae at different heliocentric angles. Our results show that for blueshifted profiles an additional lobe with the same polarity as the spot is present in the blue side of the average Stokes V profile. The amplitude of the additional lobe grows with increasing blueshift and with increasing heliocentric angle. For small redshifts, the profiles show an additional lobe with the opposite polarity as the spot on the red side of the average Stokes V profile. Even at disk center, the original polarity of the average Stokes V profile is reversed for strong redshifts. The transition between the different types of Stokes V profiles is continuous and indicates that not only the vertical, but also the horizontal EF is a magnetized stream of plasma in a magnetic background field.