M. Waring

Observation of children's physical activity levels in primary school: Is the school an ideal setting for meeting government activity targets?

Given the commitment (and funding) by the British government to promote physical activity among all ages, and despite the inevitable political manipulation of physical education (PE) and school sport, there is now an ideal opportunity to focus on primary schools as a key target group for the future. This study determined the physical activity levels of a sample of pre-adolescents over time in a primary school setting. 374 children (5–11 yrs) were directly observed for a total of 30,650 minutes. Continuous observations of 374 primary PE lessons, 374 break times and 215 lunch times were undertaken between 1999 and 2004. The actual intensity and type of activities taking place were also recorded in five-minute blocks of time. The children were engaged in activity of at least moderate intensity for 11.8 percent of the total time observed, being more active in PE lessons and break times than in lunch times. Boys were shown to be more active than girls, recording activity of at least moderate intensity for 13 percent of total time compared to 10 percent for girls. Given the available data, the primary school is not delivering on its potential to be a good setting to promote physical activity.

Towards Inclusive Teacher Education: Sensitising individuals to how they learn

Higher education has struggled to acknowledge and translate into better teaching and learning practices that sizeable literature base suggesting a link between cognitive style, learning preferences, and performance. Research is reported in which 80 undergraduate students on a primary education degree were studied to examine the relationship between their cognitive style, their learning preferences, and perceived impact on their teaching practices. All students completed the CSA measure of cognitive style, the ASSIST, two further questionnaires exploring learning preferences and perception of good teaching during the course, and an evaluation at the end of the teaching unit. Significant differences were found between the three cognitive styles investigated: wholist, intermediate, and analytic. In terms of learning preferences, using ANOVA statistically significant differences were found between the three styles with wholists being most concerned about speed of delivery and least liking computer‐assisted learning. In addition, wholists preferred less structure than analytics in their teaching and claimed to use more images while analytics claimed to use more speech in their teaching. Intermediates demonstrated a greater preference for tangential approaches to teaching and were least happy with the nature of the teaching they had received while at university. Many of the differences reported in the literature between the different cognitive styles were not evident in this study. However, the interpersonal and intrapersonal characteristics of wholists and analytics, respectively, were evident and perceived to impact on planning and delivery in the classroom. While further school‐based research involving greater numbers is required, interest in learning styles remains especially relevant if one intends to offer a truly inclusive education for all learners.

Using diagrams to support the research process: examples from grounded theory:

Despite their potential for yielding an understanding of the conceptualisation being developed, diagrams remain one of the least utilised tools in the analytical process. They have been used by interpretive investigators at various stages of the research process, for example, as artefacts to stimulate discussion in interviews, assisting the researcher in formulating ideas, refining conceptualisations in the process of theory building and communicating ideas to others. This article has two main objectives: first, to begin to explore some of the intricacies associated with the use of diagrams in grounded theory, and second, to use case study material from two separate projects, which adopted individual approaches to grounded theory, to investigate young peoples’ attitudes towards physical activity; it outlines the ways in which diagrams and drawings were used differently by researchers at various stages to support the research process and ongoing analysis of data.

Field independence: Reviewing the evidence

BACKGROUND The construct of field independence (FI) remains one of the most widely cited notions in research on cognitive style and on learning and instruction more generally. However, a great deal of confusion continues to exist around the definition of FI, its measurement, and the interpretation of research results, all of which have served to limit our understanding of and practice in education. AIMS This study reviews research evidence on FI and highlights key issues to frame a more informed agenda for future research. ARGUMENTS Caution needs to be exercised over the interpretation of the evidence around FI and field dependence (FD). In tests measuring FI only, it is inappropriate to use the term FD. FI is clearly correlated with measures of spatial ability; however, whether FI is just a measure of perceptual and more specifically spatial ability is a matter of debate. Furthermore, whether FI is just a cognitive ability or a cognitive style is not the central issue, as both can be developed. FI has a significant relationship with aspects of working memory and with other variables. It is especially important in the management and interpretation of complex cognitive tasks. CONCLUSIONS Field independence has an important role to play in the navigation of the complex and information-rich learning environments of the 21st century. It is therefore important to move beyond the present narrow focus on FI as a style or trait by acknowledging, embracing, and exploring the complexity of the interaction between individual and contextual variables.

The evolving nature of grounded theory: experiential reflections on the potential of the method for analysing children’s attitudes towards physical activity

It has been claimed that grounded theory is the most widely used qualitative method in social science research presenting a distinct approach to generating theories about substantive areas for which there are few existing theories. The method has been continually reinvented causing some to question its usefulness for educational researchers. Children’s physical activity has become an area of great interest to researchers in conjunction with increasing concerns about the health of the nation. There are, however, few studies in this area which have employed grounded theory. Using case study material from two separate projects relating to children’s attitudes towards physical activity, this paper highlights some of the issues associated with using particular versions of the method and the realities of working with children using recommendations from Glaser and Strauss and Corbin.

Pre-Service Physical Education Teachers' Perceptions of Subject Knowledge: Augmenting Learning to Teach.

This paper explores pre-service teachers’ perceptions of subject knowledge as they learn to teach during a one-year postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE) programme in England. The article examines the impact of pre-service teachers’ previous experiences and individual subject knowledge profiles on their development during their PGCE course. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 pre-service teachers (6 male; 6 female) over a period of three years at the beginning, middle and end of their 36-week teacher education programme in 2005/6. Pre-service teachers also completed weekly reflective commentaries on their learning to teach via a virtual learning environment (VLE). Analysis of the data involved the use of NVIVO software within a grounded theory framework. Pre-service teachers’ value judgements on aspects of their own subject knowledge, as well as the sources and means through which this knowledge was acquired are identified with a view to augmenting their learning experiences. The paper asserts that recent education reforms in England have restricted opportunities for pre-service teachers in England to develop their practical subject matter content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge and concludes with recommendations to enhance the quality of the existing framework postgraduate teacher education in England. Perceptions des enseignants stagiaires d’éducation physique relatives à leur connaissance de la discipline enseignée: améliorer l’apprentissage de l’enseignement Cet article explore les perceptions des enseignants stagiaires relatives aux connaissances disciplinaires qu’ils acquièrent, une fois diplômés, pendant l’année au cours de laquelle ils suivent le programme de certification en éducation (postgraduate certificate in education; PGCE) en Angleterre. Cet article étudie l’influence des expériences antérieures capitalisées par les enseignants stagiaires et des profiles de connaissances disciplinaires sur leur construction en tant qu’enseignant durant cette année de formation PGCE. Des entretiens semi-structurés ont été conduits en profondeur auprès de 12 enseignants stagiaires (6 hommes, 6 femmes) et couvraient une période de 3 ans. Ils ont été menés au début, au milieu et à la fin de leurs 36 semaines de formation en éducation au cours de l’année 2005/06. Les enseignants stagiaires ont également produit chaque semaine une analyse réflexive sur leur formation en enseignement grâce à un environnement virtuel d’apprentissage (EVA). L’analyse des données a été réalisée à l’aide du logiciel NVIVO et s’insérait dans un cadre théorique per tinent. Les enseignants stagiaires valorisent les jugements fondés sur leur propre connaissance disciplinaire, ainsi que les sources et les moyens par lesquels cette connaissance est acquise et identifiée dans la perspective d’améliorer leurs expériences d’apprentissage. Cet article soutient l’idée que les récentes réformes éducatives en Angleterre ont réduit les opportunités des enseignants stagiaires anglais de développer leurs connaissances pratiques du contenu disciplinaire et leur connaissance du contenu pédagogique. Il conclue par des recommandations visant à améliorer la qualité de l’actuelle formation initiale des enseignants en Angleterre. Percepciones de los profesores en pre-servicio del conocimiento sobre la materia según aprenden a enseñar Este artículo explora la percepción de los profesores en ‘pre servicio’ sobre el conocimiento de la materia cuando aprenden a enseñar durante el programa anual de postgraduado para obtener el certificado en educación (PGCE) en Inglaterra. El artículo examina el impacto de las experiencias previas de los profesores en ‘pre servicio’ y de los conocimientos individuales de la materia en su evolución durante su curso de PGCE. En detalle, se realizó una entrevista semiestructurada a 12 profesores en “pre servicio” (6 hombres y 3 mujeres), durante tres años (en tres ocasiones): al principio, a mitad de tiempo y al final de sus 36 semanas del programa para ser profesores durante el curso 2005/2006. Los profesores en ‘pre servicio’ también hicieron semanalmente comentarios reflexivos sobre su programa para aprender a enseñar usando el entorno de aprendizaje virtual (VLE). El análisis de la información requiere el uso del software NVIVO dentro del marco de la teoría fundamentada. Los valiosos criterios de los profesores en ‘pre servicio’ en aspectos del conocimiento de su propia materia, así como los orígenes y medios por los que este conocimiento fue adquirido son identificados con la intención de incrementar sus experiencias en el aprendizaje. El articulo afirma que las recientes reformas educativas en Inglaterra han restringido las oportunidades para que los profesores en ‘pre servicio’ en Inglaterra desarrollen el conocimiento (habilidades) practico del contenido de su materia y el conocimiento (habilidades) pedagógico y concluye con recomendaciones para mejorar la calidad del sistema de educación de profesores despues de licenciarse en Inglaterra. Zur Wahrnehmung von Fachwissen durch Lehramts-Anwärter/innen: Anreicherung des Lernens von Lehrkompetenz Der vorliegende Artikel erörtert die Wahrnehmung der Bedeutung von Fachwissen von Lehramts-Anwärter/innen im Zusammenhang mit Lernprozessen für die Entwicklung von Lehrkompetenz während eines einjährigen post-gradualen Zertifikats für Erziehung (PGCE) in England. Der Artikel untersucht den Einfluss der Erfahrungen und individuellen fachbezogenen Profile der Lehramts-Anwärter/innen auf ihre Entwicklung während des PGCE-Kurses. Es wurden halb-strukturierte Interviews mit 12 Lehramts-Anwärter/innen (6 Männer, 6 Frauen) über einen Zeitraum von 3 Jahren am Anfang, in der Mitte und am Ende ihrer 36-wöchigen Lehramtsausbildung in 2005/2006 geführt. Die Lehramts-Schüler/innen haben zudem mittels einer virtuellen Lernumgebung (VLE) wöchentlich ihre Lernprozesse im Zusammenhang mit der Erweiterung ihrer Lehrkompetenz reflektiert. Die Datenanalyse basierte auf einem Grounded-Theory- Bezugssystem und wurde durch die Nutzung von NVIVO-Software unterstützt. Die Werturteile der Lehramts-Anwärter/innen in Bezug auf ihre eigenes Fachwissen sowie die Mittel und Wege zur Aneignung dieses Wissens wurden im Zusammenhang mit einer Anreicherung ihrer Lernerfahrungen identifiziert. Der Artikel stellt fest, dass jüngste Bildungsreformen in England die Möglichkeiten für Lehramts-Anwärter/innen eingeschränkt haben, praxisbezogenes fachbezogenes Kontextwissen und pädagogisches Kontextwissen zu entwickeln, und endet mit Empfehlungen zur Steigerung der Qualität im Rahmen der Ausbildung von angehenden Lehrerinnen und Lehrern in England.

Understanding pedagogy: developing a critical approach to teaching and learning

What is meant by pedagogy? How does our conception of pedagogy inform good teaching and learning? Pedagogy is a complex concept of which student and practising teachers need to have an understanding, yet there remain many ambiguities about what the term means, and how it informs learning in the classroom. Understanding Pedagogy examines pedagogy in a holistic way, supporting a more critical and reflective understanding of teaching and learning. It considers pedagogy as a concept that covers not just teaching approaches and pupil-teacher relationships but one which also embraces and informs educational theory, personal learning styles, assessment, and relationships inside and outside the classroom. A detailed consideration of what it means to be a professional in the contemporary climate, Understanding Pedagogy challenges student and practising teachers to reappraise their understanding and practice through effectively linking theory and practice. Key issues explored include the importance of understanding a learning styles profile, the application of cognitive neuroscience to teaching, personalised learning, assessment and feedback, and what we mean by critical reflection. Using the Personal Learning Styles Pedagogy, the authors make explicit the integration of theory and practice and the many decisions and selections that teachers make, their implications for what is being taught and learnt, how learners are positioned in the pedagogical process, and ultimately, how learning can be improved. Understanding Pedagogy will be essential reading for student and practising teachers, as well those on Education Studies courses and undertaking masters level courses, involved in the endeavour of understanding what constitutes effective teaching and learning.

Trainee teachers' cognitive styles and notions of differentiation

Purpose – To compare the cognitive styles of trainee teachers with their notions of differentiation and perceptions of its place/location within their teaching and learning during a PGCE programme of ITE. Methodology – 80 trainee teachers completed the Cognitive Style Index (CSI) (Allinson & Hayes, 1996) at the beginning and at the end of their course. After completing the CSI measure trainees received instruction on cognitive styles. To assess their initial understanding and prior knowledge of differentiation, all trainees completed a questionnaire at the beginning at the end of their course. Findings – At the outset rudimentary understandings of differentiation were found to be held by the trainees, as well as stylistic differences between the four style groupings. Gains in understanding of differentiation and the use of cognitive style in school were evident in all trainees. Moderate changes in style were evident, with all trainees becoming more intuitive over the course of the programme. Research limitations – The sample size may be seen as a limitation in terms of generalisability. Practical implications –The predominant direction of cognitive style movement was from analytic to intuitive. The suggestion that cognitive style whilst relatively fixed is also something that can be developed, is a feature which should offer encouragement to those developing university courses through interventions such as this. Originality - Teaching sessions on how cognitive styles can be used in the classroom were used to enhance trainee understandings of individual learning differences and increase awareness of own style to facilitate understanding of differentiation.

Game-Centred Games- A Revolutionary or Evolutionary Alternative for Games Teaching?:

many practices in physical education (PE), not least the way in which games are taught. Games dominate the total curricula time within the PE timetable and many attempts at innovation are seen as problematic (Hill, 1986; Kirk, 1988; Sparkes, 1990; Ruddock, 1991). One such challenging approach arising from dissatisfaction with much of the existing games teaching, is the ’teaching games for understanding’ approach, also referred to as ’gamecentred games’ (Waring, 1991). In this approach the game is seen as the centre of the learning process. Even though the title ’teaching games for understanding’ has put the emphasis on the ’understanding’ of games by children, which was desirable, this title has been misunderstood and advocates of this approach have searched for a more appropriate title. Almond coined a phrase which emphasises the centrality of the game ’game-centred games’. This title is preferred by Almond because it gives the desired emphasis to the game as central to the whole process. Bunker & Thorpe make reference to the ’game-centred approach’ to teaching games in their 1983

An investigation of pre-service teachers’ learning in physical education teacher education: schools and university in partnership

ABSTRACT This study explores the role of school and university partnership teams in the professional development of physical education (PE) pre-service teachers (PSTs) during their one year Postgraduate Certificate in Education course in England. The paper focuses on the key influences and processes that impacted on PST subject knowledge development. An interpretive methodology informed by constructivist grounded theory [Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. London: Sage.] was adopted. This research highlights that the process of knowledge development in physical education teacher education (PETE) is socially constructed and complex. Much of the PSTs’ development was influenced by various communities of practice, particularly their school placements’ PE departments, but also their university-based learning community. Of these, the legitimised practices within the PE departments were found to be especially important to PSTs’ development. University-based learning was credited by PSTs with enhancing their holistic understanding of the learning process, developing those aspects of critical pedagogy that were under-developed in schools. This study identifies the capability of school/university partnerships to facilitate enhanced knowledge development in PETE. Taking into consideration the evolving nature of PETE within a political context that is progressively moving towards an entirely school-based model, an evidence-based debate over the manner and nature of the subject knowledge to be developed is needed.