Madelon Ruige

Manchester triage system in paediatric emergency care: prospective observational study

Objective To validate use of the Manchester triage system in paediatric emergency care. Design Prospective observational study. Setting Emergency departments of a university hospital and a teaching hospital in the Netherlands, 2006-7. Participants 17 600 children (aged <16) visiting an emergency department over 13 months (university hospital) and seven months (teaching hospital). Intervention Nurses triaged 16 735/17 600 patients (95%) using a computerised Manchester triage system, which calculated urgency levels from the selection of discriminators embedded in flowcharts for presenting problems. Nurses over-ruled the urgency level in 1714 (10%) children, who were excluded from analysis. Complete data for the reference standard were unavailable in 1467 (9%) children leaving 13 554 patients for analysis. Main outcome measures Urgency according to the Manchester triage system compared with a predefined and independently assessed reference standard for five urgency levels. This reference standard was based on a combination of vital signs at presentation, potentially life threatening conditions, diagnostic resources, therapeutic interventions, and follow-up. Sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios for high urgency (immediate and very urgent) and 95% confidence intervals for subgroups based on age, use of flowcharts, and discriminators. Results The Manchester urgency level agreed with the reference standard in 4582 of 13 554 (34%) children; 7311 (54%) were over-triaged and 1661 (12%) under-triaged. The likelihood ratio was 3.0 (95% confidence interval 2.8 to 3.2) for high urgency and 0.5 (0.4 to 0.5) for low urgency; though the likelihood ratios were lower for those presenting with a medical problem (2.3 (2.2 to 2.5) v 12.0 (7.8 to 18.0) for trauma) and in younger children (2.4 (1.9 to 2.9) at 0-3 months v 5.4 (4.5 to 6.5) at 8-16 years). Conclusions The Manchester triage system has moderate validity in paediatric emergency care. It errs on the safe side, with much more over-triage than under-triage compared with an independent reference standard for urgency. Triage of patients with a medical problem or in younger children is particularly difficult.

Validity of the Manchester Triage System in paediatric emergency care

Objective: To assess the validity of the Manchester Triage System (MTS) in paediatric emergency care, using information on vital signs, resource utilisation and hospitalisation. Methods: Patients were eligible if they had attended the emergency department of a large inner-city hospital in The Netherlands from August 2003 to November 2004 and were <16 years of age. A representative sample of 1065 patients was drawn from 18 469 eligible patients. The originally assigned MTS urgency levels were compared with resource utilisation, hospitalisation and a predefined reference classification for true urgency, based on vital signs, resource utilisation and follow-up. Sensitivity, specificity and percentage of overtriage and undertriage of the MTS were calculated. Results: The number of patients who used more than two resources increased with a higher level of MTS urgency. The percentage of hospital admissions increased with the increase in level of urgency, from 1% in the non-urgent patients to 54% in emergent patients. According to the reference classification, the sensitivity of the MTS to detect emergent/very urgent cases was 63%, and the specificity was 78%. Undertriage occurred in 15% of patients, of which 96% were by one urgency category lower than the reference classification. Overtriage occurred in 40%, mostly in lower MTS categories. In 36% of these cases, the MTS classified two or more urgency categories higher than the reference classification. Conclusions: The MTS has moderate sensitivity and specificity in paediatric emergency care. Specific modifications of the MTS should be considered in paediatric emergency care to reduce overtriage, while maintaining sensitivity in the highest urgency categories.

Effects of Systematic Screening and Detection of Child Abuse in Emergency Departments

OBJECTIVE: Although systematic screening for child abuse of children presenting at emergency departments might increase the detection rate, studies to support this are scarce. This study investigates whether introducing screening, and training of emergency department nurses, increases the detection rate of child abuse. METHODS: In an intervention cohort study, children aged 0 to 18 years visiting the emergency departments of 7 hospitals between February 2008 and December 2009 were enrolled. We developed a screening checklist for child abuse (the “Escape Form”) and training sessions for nurses; these were implemented by using an interrupted time-series design. Cases of suspected child abuse were determined by an expert panel using predefined criteria. The effect of the interventions on the screening rate for child abuse was calculated by interrupted time-series analyses and by the odds ratios for detection of child abuse in screened children. RESULTS: A total of 104 028 children aged 18 years or younger were included. The screening rate increased from 20% in February 2008 to 67% in December 2009. Significant trend changes were observed after training the nurses and after the legal requirement of screening by the Dutch Health Care Inspectorate in 2009. The detection rate in children screened for child abuse was 5 times higher than that in children not screened (0.5% vs 0.1%, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that systematic screening for child abuse in emergency departments is effective in increasing the detection of suspected child abuse. Both a legal requirement and staff training are recommended to significantly increase the extent of screening.

Detection of child abuse in emergency departments: a multi-centre study

Objective This study examines the detection rates of suspected child abuse in the emergency departments of seven Dutch hospitals complying and not complying with screening guidelines for child abuse. Design Data on demographics, diagnosis and suspected child abuse were collected for all children aged ≤18 years who visited the emergency departments over a 6-month period. The completion of a checklist of warning signs of child abuse in at least 10% of the emergency department visits was considered to be compliance with screening guidelines. Results A total of 24 472 visits were analysed, 54% of which took place in an emergency department complying with screening guidelines. Child abuse was suspected in 52 children (0.2%). In 40 (77%) of these 52 cases, a checklist of warning signs had been completed compared with a completion rate of 19% in the total sample. In hospitals complying with screening guidelines for child abuse, the detection rate was higher (0.3%) than in those not complying (0.1%, p<0.001). Conclusion During a 6-month period, emergency department staff suspected child abuse in 0.2% of all children visiting the emergency department of seven Dutch hospitals. The numbers of suspected abuse cases detected were low, but an increase is likely if uniform screening guidelines are widely implemented.

The Manchester triage system: Improvements for paediatric emergency care

Objective To improve the Manchester Triage System (MTS) in paediatric emergency care. Methods The authors performed a prospective observational study at the emergency departments of a university and teaching hospital in The Netherlands and included children attending in 2007 and 2008. The authors developed and implemented specific age-dependent modifications for the MTS, based on patient groups where the systems performance was low. Nurses applied the modified system in 11 481 (84%) patients. The reference standard for urgency defined five levels based on a combination of vital signs at presentation, potentially life-threatening conditions, diagnostic resources, therapeutic interventions and follow-up. The reference standard for urgency was previously defined and available in 11 260/11 481 (96%) patients. Results Compared with the original MTS specificity improved from 79% (95% CI 79% to 80%) to 87% (95% CI 86% to 87%) while sensitivity remained similar ((63%, 95% CI 59% to 66%) vs (64%, 95% CI 60% to 68%)). The diagnostic OR increased (4.1 vs 11). Conclusions Modifications of the MTS for paediatric emergency care resulted in an improved specificity while sensitivity remained unchanged. Further research should focus on the improvement of sensitivity.

Undertriage in the Manchester triage system: an assessment of severity and options for improvement

Background The Manchester Triage System (MTS) determines an inappropriately low level of urgency (undertriage) to a minority of children. The aim of the study was to assess the clinical severity of undertriaged patients in the MTS and to define the determinants of undertriage. Methods Patients who had attended the emergency department (ED) were triaged according to the MTS. Undertriage was defined as a ‘low urgent’ classification (levels 3, 4 and 5) under the MTS; as a ‘high urgent’ classification (levels 1 and 2) under an independent reference standard based on abnormal vital signs (level 1), potentially life-threatening conditions (level 2), and a combination of resource use, hospitalisation, and follow-up for the three lowest urgency levels. In an expert meeting, three experienced paediatricians used a standardised format to determine the clinical severity. The clinical severity had been expressed by possible consequences of treatment delay caused by undertriage, such as the use of more interventions and diagnostics, longer hospitalisation, complications, morbidity, and mortality. In a prospective observational study we used logistic regression analysis to assess predictors for undertriage. Results In total, 0.9% (119/13,408) of the patients were undertriaged. In 53% (63/119) of these patients, experts considered undertriage as clinically severe. In 89% (56/63) of these patients the high reference urgency was determined on the basis of abnormal vital signs. The prospective observational study showed undertriage was more likely in infants (especially those younger than three months), and in children assigned to the MTS ‘unwell child’ flowchart (adjusted OR<3 months 4.2, 95% CI 2.3 to 7.7 and adjusted ORunwell child 11.1, 95% CI 5.5 to 22.3). Conclusion Undertriage is infrequent, but can have serious clinical consequences. To reduce significant undertriage, the authors recommend a systematic assessment of vital signs in all children.

Repeatability of the Manchester Triage System for children

Objective The authors aimed to assess the repeatability of the Manchester Triage System (MTS) in children. Methods All emergency department nurses (n=43) from a general teaching hospital and a university childrens hospital in The Netherlands triaged 20 written case scenarios using the Manchester Triage system. Second, at two emergency departments (EDs), real-life simultaneous triage of patients (<16 years) was performed by ED nurses and two research nurses. The written case scenarios and the patients included in the real-life simultaneous triage study were representative of children attending the ED, in age, problem and urgency level. The authors assessed inter-rater agreement using quadratic weighted kappa values. Results The weighted kappa between the nurses, triaging the case scenarios, was 0.83 (95% CI 0.74 to 0.91). In total, 88% (N=198) of the eligible ED patients were triaged simultaneously, with a weighted κ of 0.65 (95% CI 0.56 to 0.72). Conclusions The MTS showed good to very good repeatability in paediatric emergency care.

Self-Referral and Serious Illness in Children With Fever

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to evaluate parents’ capability to assess their febrile child’s severity of illness and decision to present to the emergency department. We compared children referred by a general practitioner (GP) with those self-referred on the basis of illness-severity markers. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional observational study conducted at the emergency departments of a university and a teaching hospital. GP-referred or self-referred children with fever (aged <16 years) who presented to the emergency department (2006–2008) were included. Markers for severity of illness were urgency according to the Manchester Triage System, diagnostic interventions, therapeutic interventions, and follow-up. Associations between markers and referral type were assessed by using logistic regression analysis. Subgroup analyses were performed for patients with the most common presenting problems that accompanied the fever (ie, dyspnea, gastrointestinal complaints, neurologic symptoms, fever without specific symptoms). RESULTS: Thirty-eight percent of 4609 children were referred by their GP and 62% were self-referred. GP-referred children were classified as high urgency (immediate/very urgent categories) in 46% of the cases and self-referrals in 45%. Forty-three percent of GP referrals versus 27% of self-referrals needed extensive diagnostic intervention, intravenous medication/aerosol treatment, hospitalization, or a combination of these (odds ratio: 2.0 [95% confidence interval: 1.75–2.27]). In all subgroups, high urgency was not associated with referral type. GP-referred and self-referred children with dyspnea had similar frequencies of illness-severity markers. CONCLUSIONS: Although febrile self-referred children were less severely ill than GP-referred children, many parents properly judged and acted on the severity of their child’s illness. To avoid delayed or missed diagnoses, recommendations regarding interventions that would discourage self-referral to the emergency department should be reconsidered.

Referral of nonurgent children from the emergency department to general practice: Compliance and cost savings

Objective To evaluate compliance and costs of referral of nonurgent children, who present at the emergency department, to the general practitioner cooperative (GPC). Materials and methods In a prospective observational before–after study, during 6 months in 2008, the triage nurse discussed referral to the GPC with parents, when self-referred children with a nontraumatic problem, aged 3 months–16 years were triaged as nonurgent (levels 4 and 5) according to the Manchester Triage System. A telephone follow-up was performed 2–4 days after referral. Real costs were calculated for emergency department consultation (preintervention period) and GPC referral (postintervention period). Compliance of referral was studied for 4 days a week. Results One hundred and forty patients were referred to the GPC, of which 101 out of 140 patients (72%) attended a follow-up. After discharge seven patients (7%) had an unscheduled revisit. No patients were subsequently hospitalized. In total 275 patients were included to study compliance, with 28 (10%) reported missing. Ninety-five out of 247 (38%) patients were referred to the general practitioner and 46 out of 247 parents (19%) refused referral. For 106 out of 247 patients (43%) referral was not initiated by the nurse mainly because of comorbidity. Mean costs per patient were &OV0556; 106 for the preintervention period and &OV0556; 101 for the postintervention period. Conclusion Compliance of referring low urgent patients is low, mainly because it was difficult for nursing staff to refer. Total overall cost benefit is minimal. Cost savings may be achieved in different settings, where general practitioner services are colocated and where large numbers can be referred.

1621 Heart Rates and Respiratory Rates are Associated with Manchester Pain Scores in Children Presented at the Emergency Department

Background and Aims Acute pain increases vital signs and is measured by the Manchester pain scale during triage. This multicentre observational study aims to determine associations between respiratory rates or heart rates and Manchester pain scores and to derive age and pain appropriate centiles for children presenting at emergency departments (EDs). Methods Triaged children (< 16 years) presented at EDs in Rotterdam between 2006 and 2010, in The Hague between 2006 and 2007, and in London in 2010, were included. Pain scores were obtained by the Manchester painscale (range 0–10). This painscale combines a visual analogue scale, a verbal descriptor scale, and a pain behaviour tool. Univariate and multivariable regression analyses were performed. Secondly, pain and age appropriate heart rate and respiratory rate centile charts were created. Results We included 45344 children. In multivariable analysis, the average heart rate of children with mild or moderate pain decreased significantly with 6.1 (95%CI5.2–6.9) and 5.0 (95%CI3.9–6.1) beats per minute respectively, while children with severe pain had increased heart rates (6.5.95%CI4.5–8.6) when compared with children without pain. Centile charts for children younger than twelve years showed increased heart rates for children with severe pain. This effect disappeared in older children. The association between respiratory rates and pain scores showed similar trends as heart rate centiles, but the change in respiratory rates was small. Conclusion New derived centile charts for children are available to interpreted heart rates and respiratory rates in relation to pain. In younger children, heart rates increased due to severe pain.