Maria Teresa Savino

The proapoptotic and antimitogenic protein p66SHC acts as a negative regulator of lymphocyte activation and autoimmunity

The ShcA locus encodes 3 protein isoforms that differ in tissue specificity, subcellular localization, and function. Among these, p66Shc inhibits TCR coupling to the Ras/MAPK pathway and primes T cells to undergo apoptotic death. We have investigated the outcome of p66Shc deficiency on lymphocyte development and homeostasis. We show that p66Shc(-/-) mice develop an age-related lupus-like autoimmune disease characterized by spontaneous peripheral T- and B-cell activation and proliferation, autoantibody production, and immune complex deposition in kidney and skin, resulting in autoimmune glomerulonephritis and alopecia. p66Shc(-/-) lymphocytes display enhanced proliferation in response to antigen receptor engagement in vitro and more robust immune responses both to vaccination and to allergen sensitization in vivo. The data identify p66Shc as a negative regulator of lymphocyte activation and show that loss of this protein results in breaking of immunologic tolerance and development of systemic autoimmunity.

Cooperation and selectivity of the two Grb2 binding sites of p52Shc in T-cell antigen receptor signaling to Ras family GTPases and Myc-dependent survival.

Shc proteins participate in a variety of processes regulating cell proliferation, survival and apoptosis. The two ubiquitously expressed isoforms, p52Shc/p46Shc, couple tyrosine kinase receptors to Ras by recruiting Grb2/Sos complexes to a membrane-proximal localization. Tyrosine residues 239/240 and 317 become phosphorylated following receptor engagement and, as such, form two Grb2 binding sites, which have been proposed to be differentially coupled to Myc-dependent survival and to fos-dependent proliferation, respectively. Here, we have addressed the individual function of YY239/240 and Y317 in T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling. We show that p52Shc is phosphorylated on both YY239/240 and Y317 following TCR engagement. Mutation of either YY239/240 or Y317 results in impaired interaction with Grb2 and inhibition of Ras/MAP kinase activation and CD69 induction, supporting a role for both Grb2 binding sites in this function. Substitution of either YY239/240 or Y317 also results in a defective activation of Rac and the coupled stress kinases JNK and p38. Furthermore, mutation of Y317 or, to a larger extent, of YY239/240, results in increased activation-induced cell death, which in cells expressing the FF239/240 mutant is accompanied by impaired TCR-dependent c-myc transcription. The data underline a pleiotropic and nonredundant role of Shc, mediated by both YY239/240 and Y317, in T-cell activation and survival.

Positive and negative regulation of antigen receptor signaling by the Shc family of protein adapters

Summary:  The Shc adapter family includes four members that are expressed as multiple isoforms and participate in signaling by a variety of cell‐surface receptors. The biological relevance of Shc proteins as well as their variegated function, which relies on their highly conserved modular structure, is underscored by the distinct and dramatic phenotypic alterations resulting from deletion of individual Shc isoforms both in the mouse and in two model organisms, Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans. The p52 isoform of ShcA couples antigen and cytokine receptors to Ras activation in both lymphoid and myeloid cells. However, the recognition of the spectrum of activities of p52ShcA in the immune system has been steadily expanding in recent years to other fundamental processes both at the cell and organism levels. Two other Shc family members, p66ShcA and p52ShcC/Rai, have been identified recently in T and B lymphocytes, where they antagonize survival and attenuate antigen receptor signaling. These developments reveal an unexpected and complex interplay of multiple Shc proteins in lymphocytes.

Opposite effects of simvastatin on the bactericidal and inflammatory response of macrophages to opsonized S. aureus.

Besides lowering circulating cholesterol, statins act as immunomodulators. Although the effects of statins on lymphocyte activation and differentiation have been clearly defined, there is no consensus as to effects of these drugs on phagocytes. We have addressed the outcome of simvastatin treatment on the activation and effector function of human macrophages in the pathophysiologically relevant context of challenge with an opportunistic pathogen. We provide evidence that: simvastatin blocks the biological effects rapidly triggered by IgG‐opsonized bacteria (phagocytosis and oxidative burst) while enhancing the delayed effects elicited by FcγR stimulation (production of proinflammatory mediators); these opposite effects of simvastatin result from enhancement of the JNK pathway and concomitant impairment of other signaling modules activated by FcγR engagement; and these activities are dependent on the capacity of simvastatin to block protein prenylation. The results provide novel mechanistic insight into the activities of statins on phagocytes and are of relevance to the assessment of potential side‐effects in patients undergoing long‐term hypocholesterolemic therapy.

Rai Acts as a Negative Regulator of Autoimmunity by Inhibiting Antigen Receptor Signaling and Lymphocyte Activation

Rai (ShcC) belongs to the family of Shc adaptor proteins and is expressed in neuronal cells, where it acts as a survival factor activating the PI3K/Akt survival pathway. In vivo, Rai protects the brain from ischemic damage. In this study, we show that Rai is expressed in T and B lymphocytes. Based on the finding that Rai−/− mice consistently develop splenomegaly, the role of Rai in lymphocyte homeostasis and proliferation was addressed. Surprisingly, as opposed to neurons, Rai was found to impair lymphocyte survival. Furthermore, Rai deficiency results in a reduction in the frequency of peripheral T cells with a concomitant increase in the frequency of B cells. Rai−/− lymphocytes display enhanced proliferative responses to Ag receptor engagement in vitro, which correlates with enhanced signaling by the TCR and BCR, and more robust responses to allergen sensitization in vivo. A high proportion of Rai−/− mice develop a lupus-like autoimmune syndrome characterized by splenomegaly, spontaneous peripheral T and B cell activation, autoantibody production, and deposition of immune complexes in the kidney glomeruli, resulting in autoimmune glomerulonephritis. The data identify Rai as a negative regulator of lymphocyte survival and activation and show that loss of this protein results in breaking of immunological tolerance and development of systemic autoimmunity.

p66Shc Is a Negative Regulator of FcεRI-Dependent Signaling in Mast Cells

Aggregation of FcεRI on mast cells activates signaling pathways, resulting in degranulation and cytokine release. Release of mast cell-derived inflammatory mediators is tightly regulated by the interplay of positive and negative signals largely orchestrated by adapter proteins. Among these, the Shc family adapter p52Shc, which couples immunoreceptors to Ras activation, positively regulates FcεRI-dependent signaling. Conversely, p66Shc was shown to uncouple the TCR for the Ras–MAPK pathway and prime T cells to undergo apoptotic death. Loss of p66Shc in mice results in breaking of immunologic tolerance and development of lupus-like autoimmune disease, which includes alopecia among its pathological manifestations. The presence of numerous activated mast cells in alopecic skin areas suggests a role for this adapter in mast cells. In this study, we addressed the involvement of p66Shc in FcεRI-dependent mast cell activation. We showed that p66Shc is expressed in mast cells and that mast cells from p66Shc−/− mice exhibit enhanced responses following Ag stimulation of FcεRI. Furthermore, using RBL-2H3 cell transfectants, we showed that aggregation of FcεRI resulted in the recruitment of a p66Shc–SHIP1 complex to linker for activation of T cells. Collectively, our data identified p66Shc as a negative regulator of mast cell activation.

The Shc Family Protein Adaptor, Rai, Negatively Regulates T Cell Antigen Receptor Signaling by Inhibiting ZAP-70 Recruitment and Activation

Rai/ShcC is a member of the Shc family of protein adaptors expressed with the highest abundance in the central nervous system, where it exerts a protective function by coupling neurotrophic receptors to the PI3K/Akt survival pathway. Rai is also expressed, albeit at lower levels, in other cell types, including T and B lymphocytes. We have previously reported that in these cells Rai attenuates antigen receptor signaling, thereby impairing not only cell proliferation but also, opposite to neurons, cell survival. Here we have addressed the mechanism underlying the inhibitory activity of Rai on TCR signaling. We show that Rai interferes with the TCR signaling cascade one of the earliest steps –recruitment of the initiating kinase ZAP-70 to the phosphorylated subunit of the TCR/CD3 complex, which results in a generalized dampening of the downstream signaling events. The inhibitory activity of Rai is associated to its inducible recruitment to phosphorylated CD3, which occurs in the physiological signaling context of the immune synapse. Rai is moreover found as a pre-assembled complex with ZAP-70 and also constitutively interacts with the regulatory p85 subunit of PI3K, similar to neuronal cells, notwithstanding the opposite biological outcome, i.e. impairment of PI-3K/Akt activation. The data highlight the ability of Rai to establish interactions with the TCR and key signaling mediators which, either directly (e.g. by inhibiting ZAP-70 recruitment to the TCR or sequestering ZAP-70/PI3K in the cytosol) or indirectly (e.g. by promoting the recruitment of effectors responsible for signal extinction) prevent full triggering of the TCR signaling cascade.

The Shc family protein adaptor, Rai, acts as a negative regulator of Th17 and Th1 cell development

Rai, a Shc adapter family member, acts as a negative regulator of antigen receptor signaling in T and B cells. Rai−/− mice develop lupus‐like autoimmunity associated to the spontaneous activation of self‐reactive lymphocytes. Here, we have addressed the potential role of Rai in the development of the proinflammatory Th1 and Th17 subsets, which are centrally implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of autoimmune diseases, including lupus. We show that Rai−/− mice display a spontaneous Th1/Th17 bias. In vitro polarization experiments on naive and effector/memory CD4+ T cells demonstrate that Rai−/− favors the development and expansion of Th17 but not Th1 cells, indicating that Rai modulates TCR signaling to antagonize the pathways driving naive CD4+ T cell differentiation to the Th17 lineage, while indirectly limiting Th1 cell development in vivo. Th1 and Th17 cell infiltrates were found in the kidneys of Rai−/− mice, providing evidence that Rai−/− contributes to the development of lupus nephritis, not only by enhancing lymphocyte activation but also by promoting the development and expansion of proinflammatory effector T cells. Interestingly, T cells from SLE patients were found to have a defect in Rai expression, suggesting a role for Rai in disease pathogenesis.

The Adaptor Protein Rai/ShcC Promotes Astrocyte-Dependent Inflammation during Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Th17 cells have been casually associated to the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease. We have previously demonstrated that Rai/ShcC, a member of the Shc family of adaptor proteins, negatively regulates Th17 cell differentiation and lupus autoimmunity. In this study, we have investigated the pathogenic outcome of the Th17 bias associated with Rai deficiency on multiple sclerosis development, using the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model. We found that, unexpectedly, EAE was less severe in Rai−/− mice compared with their wild-type counterparts despite an enhanced generation of myelin-specific Th17 cells that infiltrated into the CNS. Nevertheless, when adoptively transferred into immunodeficient Rai+/+ mice, these cells promoted a more severe disease compared with wild-type encephalitogenic Th17 cells. This paradoxical phenotype was caused by a dampened inflammatory response of astrocytes, which were found to express Rai, to IL-17. The results provide evidence that Rai plays opposite roles in Th17 cell differentiation and astrocyte activation, with the latter dominant over the former in EAE, highlighting this adaptor as a potential novel target for the therapy of multiple sclerosis.