Martin Littlewood

Organizational Structures and Working Practices in Elite European Professional Football Clubs: Understanding the Relationship between Youth and Professional Domains

Abstract Professional football clubs are service enterprises engaged in the business of performance, entertainment and financial profit. Developing young players may reap both sporting and financial rewards to clubs, players and football agents. This paper explores the organizational structure and working practices of professional football clubs concerning young player development. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with heads of youth development within elite clubs (n =26) across five European countries. The study reveals the presence of organizational homogenization within formal youth structures across Europe. Developing players for first team, players personal development and financial profit were predominant aims of all youth programmes. Operational differences included roles, responsibility, youth to professional transitions and the dominant presence of a club orientation towards player development (n=22). Lack of proximity and formal communication between youth and professional environments, regardless of structure, led to staff dissatisfaction and appeared to hinder the coherent progression of young players into the professional environment.

Developing support mechanisms for elite young players in a professional soccer academy: creative reflections in action research.

Developing soccer players are introduced to the notions of professionalism through the soccer Academy system. The range of personal and interpersonal challenges that elite youth soccer players encounter suggests a need for the provision of appropriate support mechanisms within Academy training programmes. The present paper draws from the authors’ prolonged research association with elite youth development programmes in soccer. More specifically, the paper utilises elements of a longitudinal collaborative action research exercise, which explored the role of the Heads of Education and Welfare (HoEW) within English soccer Academies. The theme of ‘supporting development’ is illustrated through the example of one HoEWs approach to player support. The authors’ observations and experiences, which draw on ethnographic principles, are presented utilising the traditions of autobiographical writing (Swan, 1998) and the guidelines associated with creative non‐fiction (Sparkes, 2000). Such representations enable the authors, the practitioner (and the reader) to witness the manifestation of holistic player support (Reilly, Williams and Richardson, 2003).

An examination of the migratory transition of elite young European soccer players to the English Premier League

Abstract The migration of soccer players has increased in recent years. In this study, we examined the experiences of elite young soccer players as they engaged in a migratory transition from their home country to an English Premier League (EPL) club. Five young players, who made the migratory transition between the ages of 16 and 24, were interviewed. Data were analysed using the principles of content analysis. Verbatim text was then aligned to the emergent themes. Results indicate that young migratory players face the initial frenzy that is associated with an approach from an EPL club before going through a “decision” phase, followed by a period of “migration” and “acculturation” before establishing (or not) their “home from home”. The challenges of leaving home and family while trying to establish themselves as a professional player in an environment that (still) appears to be beset with (traditional) English soccer culture (i.e. high tempo, ruthless, macho, and aggressive) are recounted. While the players family was a significant source of social support, there is still a need for qualified personnel (e.g. sports psychologists) and/or appropriately trained international recruitment staff and football agents (i.e. in areas of social, psychological, and/or performance lifestyle) to support young players through their migratory transition.

Football labour migration: an examination of the player recruitment strategies of the ‘big five’ European football leagues 2004–5 to 2008–9

The purpose of this study was to examine the player acquisition trends of the ‘big five’ European professional football leagues (English Premier League, Ligue 1, Bundesliga, Serie A and La Liga) between the seasons 2004–5 and 2008–9. Specifically, the study differentiates between the presence and impact of indigenous home-grown players, non-indigenous home-grown players and foreign players within the respective leagues. Official player directories provided information on a number of player and club variables including nationality, FIFA affiliation, league, club, primary playing position and appearances. Data was coded, analysed and presented using descriptive statistics. The results indicate an increasing level of football player migration between nation states located in different confederations. The dominant migrants outside of the UEFA confederation originate from South America and Africa. Although indigenous home-grown player numbers were decreasing (slightly), four of the five leagues remained indigenously dominant with the German Bundesliga being the only league that possessed more foreign players than indigenous home-grown players. It was noted that the propensity to adopt such global player recruitment strategies may result in the big five European leagues becoming dependent development states. Such a dependency will be more extreme in those countries that fail to invest in indigenous home-grown player development strategies.

‘What it takes’: perceptions of mental toughness and its development in an English Premier League Soccer Academy

The purpose of this qualitative study was to undertake an in-depth exploration of coaches’ and support staff perceptions regarding mental toughness and its development in the pressurised and distinctive sub-cultural milieu of an English Premier League (EPL) Soccer Academy. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight key staff responsible for a range of different roles in the development of young players. From the analysis, four general dimensions emerged as salient to mental toughness: competitiveness with self and others, mindset, resilience and personal responsibility. To enhance mental toughness, coaches sought to foster in the young players two key characteristics: independence and resourcefulness, via a challenging but supportive learning environment. Importantly, attention to the psychological development of young players was reported to be inadequately addressed in comparison with other aspects of performance such as technical skill or physical conditioning. Although mental toughness was acknowledged to be a crucial factor in securing a professional contract in the EPL, coaches reported a relative lack of knowledge about effectively nurturing this quality in players.

Exploring athletic identity in elite-level English youth football: a cross-sectional approach

Abstract This study is the first empirical investigation that has explored levels of athletic identity in elite-level English professional football. The importance of understanding athletes’ psychological well-being within professional sport has been well documented. This is especially important within the professional football industry, given the high attrition rate (Anderson, G., & Miller, R. M. (2011). The academy system in English professional football: Business value or following the herd? University of Liverpool, Management School Research Paper Series. Retrieved from http://www.liv.ac.uk/managementschool/research/working%20papers/wp201143.pdf) and distinct occupational practices (Roderick, M. (2006). The work of professional football. A labour of love? London: Routledge). A total of 168 elite youth footballers from the English professional football leagues completed the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS). Multilevel modelling was used to examine the effect of playing level, living arrangements and year of apprentice on the total AIMS score and its subscales (i.e., social identity, exclusivity and negative affectivity). Football club explained 30% of the variance in exclusivity among players (P = .022). Mean social identity was significantly higher for those players in the first year of their apprenticeship compared to the second year (P = .025). All other effects were not statistically significant (P > .05). The novel and unique findings have practical implications in the design and implementation of career support strategies with respect to social identity. This may facilitate the maintenance of motivation over a 2-year apprenticeship and positively impact on performance levels within the professional football environment.

Critical Moments in Elite Premiership Football: Who Do You Think You Are?

Abstract The present paper aims to specifically outline the critical moments that permeate professional football players’ development and existence in elite level English Premiership football. It also recognises the role of the applied sport psychologist in working with top players to address issues that challenge, impact (and change) player identity and personal meaning as they travel through their career from youth to professional to retirement. We conclude the paper by introducing some alternative perspectives on theory and practice. The paper is a result of the combined interests and applied activity of the authors and draws from theoretical frameworks and concepts in social psychology, existential phenomenological psychology and sociology. In this regard the paper attempts to synthesise (and celebrate) complimentary disciplines in order to allow us to consider the individual player within their social context.

An existential perspective on meaning, spirituality and authenticity in athletic careers

This research examines athletes’ career paths and reflections of meaning in their sporting practices through an existential psychological lens. Through notions of spirituality and authenticity, we examined how competitive sport practices and bodily movement gain meaning, and often fundamentally shift meaning, in athletes’ lives. Reflective writings with a follow-up from 10 athletes were interpreted through an existential-narrative analysis. The results suggest that while the early years of sport practice are most often characterised as highly enjoyable experiences, for some, the later career development involves existential challenges such as value conflicts, losing a sense of authenticity, fear of failure and anxiety. The ways in which the participants related to their sport in mature years varied considerably from sustained love for competitive sport, to developing a personal philosophy built around learning and spirituality or disidentification from high-level performance sport. Based on the findings, we suggest several practical implications for future research and applied practice.

The influence of date and place of birth on youth player selection to a National Football Association elite development programme

ABSTRACT Aim: This study sought to examine whether the place and date of birth of elite youth Irish footballers influences their selection onto the Football Association of Irelands primary development pathway; 12 regional centres of excellences called the “Emerging Talent Programme” (ETP). The proposed hypothesis was that players born earlier in the year would be over-represented compared to those born later in their age band. A secondary hypothesis was that access to the ETP would be independent of place of birth. Methods: The dates and place of birth of all elite youth footballers (n = 1936) selected onto the ETP since its inception were examined. χ2 tests were used to establish if the dates of birth differed from the expected population distribution. Odds ratios were used to identify spatial variation in relation to place of birth and talent production. Results: The results showed that admission to the ETP is not independent of quarter of birth (P .05, χ2 = 256.817, w = .388). Place of birth analysis showed an unequal geographical distribution of players gaining selection onto the ETP. Selection onto the ETP was not independent of place of birth (P < .05, χ2 = 149.457, w = .278). Footballers developed in counties that had an ETP centre were almost 50% more likely to gain selection than those without a centre (OR 1.455, 95% CI 1.314 -1.612). Conclusion: The current programme demonstrates inequitable distribution of opportunities to access elite development pathways due to biases related to date and place of birth.

Doing descriptive phenomenological data collection in sport psychology research

Abstract Researchers in the field of sport psychology have begun to highlight the potential of phenomenological approaches in recognizing subjective experience and the essential structure of experience. Despite this, phenomenology has been used inconsistently in the sport psychology literature thus far. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to provide theoretically informed practical guidelines for researchers who wish to employ the descriptive phenomenological interview in their studies. The recommended guidelines will be supported by underpinning theory and brief personal accounts. An argument will also be presented for the potential that descriptive phenomenology holds in creating new knowledge through rich description. In doing so, it is hoped that this method will be utilized appropriately in future sport psychology research to not only strengthen and diversify the existing literature, but also the knowledge of practitioners working within the applied world of professional sport.