Mary Sara Wells

Hierarchical linear modeling in park, recreation, and tourism research.

Myriad research contexts in parks, recreation, and tourism are characterized by the existence of effects “nested” within other effects, but only very rarely are these effects acknowledged and incorporated into designs. Failure to account for these effects not only prevents researchers from assessing effects of nested variables, but it also creates a violation of the assumption of independence of observations that is fundamental to most such commonly used sampling distributions as t and F. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) is a statistical technique that provides a solution to this problem. HLM allows researchers to account for nested effects in studies that use unbalanced designs (unequal sample sizes per group), studies that use repeated measures, or other designs that create linear dependency among observations. In this paper, we review the nested effects problem and illustrate applications of HLM using a set of experience sampling data and a set of evaluation data in which intact groups are nested within a treatment variable.

Creating an Environment for Sportsmanship Outcomes

(2006). Creating an Environment for Sportsmanship Outcomes. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance: Vol. 77, No. 7, pp. 13-17.

Examining How the Perception of Health Can Impact Participation and Autonomy Among Adults with Spinal Cord Injury

Background: Studies examining participation as defined by the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) as well as autonomy among the spinal cord injury population (SCI) are only starting to emerge. Little research has looked at how this population perceives their health status and the role this plays in active participation within their lives. Objective: This exploratory study was developed to determine whether the perception of health has an impact on participation and autonomy among adults with SCI. Methods: A convenience sample of adults with SCI currently receiving outpatient services from a rehabilitation hospital completed the online questionnaire. Forty-two subjects responded and were categorized into 2 groups: Group 1, positive perceived health, and Group 2, negative perceived health. The sample completed the Impact on Autonomy and Participation (IPA) that has 5 subscales (autonomy indoors, family role, autonomy outdoors, social life, and work/education) and demographic questions. Results: Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that perceived health had a significant impact on family roles, autonomy outdoors, social life, and work/education. Perceived health did not have a significant impact on autonomy indoors. Conclusion: The perception of health may have an impact on participation and autonomy within the areas of family role, outdoors, work/education, and social life. Implications for rehabilitation are included.

Determining If Competition Level Matters in Developing Positive and Negative Youth Sportsmanship

Millions of young athletes engage in youth sport every year at a variety of levels ranging from beginning instruction up through elite national competitions. Parents are frequently registering these youth in sport for a variety of benefits including the frequently mentioned purpose of “building character”. Although a vague term, building character is often associated with the concept of moral behavior or sportsmanship. Youth sport professionals hoping to develop programs focused on the benefits of improving sportsmanship should understand how all aspects of their programs can either improve or hinder these types of behaviors. This requires a greater understanding of how the level of competition will contribute to both positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if differences in positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors exist at various levels of competitive youth sport experiences. To accomplish this, systematic observations occurred at two different soccer tournaments. The first tournament was designed for elite athletes in the Mountain West region of the US while the second tournament was more recreationally based and was located in the South East. A total of 62 games were observed of young athletes in the U-12 and U-14 age groups. Prior to observing these games, observers went through an extensive training to ensure that they could reach 80% agreement in their observations of both the positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors engaged in by the athletes, spectators, and coaches of each game. Results from this study suggest a lack of difference between the two competitive levels in terms of positive sportsmanship behavior, but a significant ( p < 05) difference did exist between the elite athletes and recreational athletes in the number of negative sportsmanship behaviors demonstrated in a half game with the elite athletes engaging in nearly four times as many negative sportsmanship behaviors. Although some limitations do exist, youth sport professionals can use this information in a variety of ways. To begin, programs targeted at improving sportsmanship now know how to better target their efforts. This can be done through additional trainings for the programs serving elite athletes. Finally, it is important to note that programs at all levels were demonstrating many positive qualities. Consequently, it would behoove youth sport professionals to attempt to minimize the negative behaviors without eliminating the opportunities for athletes, coaches, and spectators to behave positively.

Exploring sense of community in adult recreational tennis

ABSTRACT Social benefits are of primary importance for adults involved in amateur recreational sports. Further, Chalip [(2006). Toward a distinctive sport management discipline. Journal Of Sport Management, 20(1), 1] recently identified social benefits as essential to the rationale of public delivery of sport programmes. Despite the clear importance of these benefits, limited research exists that seeks to understand how adult participants perceive their experience, if they experience social benefits, and how management practices can enhance such benefits. This research attempts to fill that gap by exploring the experience of participants in an adult recreational tennis league. Adult recreational tennis is particularly relevant to the field of leisure management as it represents a sport that may be played across the lifespan, and because delivery resides within public and private (commercial or not-for profit spheres). We interviewed 21 intermediate players in adult recreational leagues to investigate their perceptions of social benefits involved with tennis participation. Our research suggests that the feeling of a sense of community is a central benefit of participation in league tennis. This feeling is manifested through social spaces, perceptions of fairness, competition, and commitment. These findings provide valuable practical implications for leisure managers as well as a valuable theoretical contribution to the sense of community in sport theory.

The Aggie Blue Bikes Program: Implications of Leisure Involvement Toward Bicycle Commuting

This study was conducted at a campus recreation department through the Aggie Blue Bikes (ABB) program. The purpose of this study was to determine changes in bicycle commuting involvement level in a pretest-posttest design, and to determine predictors of ABB participation level conducted in a regression analysis. The results were significant change scores for a unidimensional measure of involvement and for involvement subscales (centrality, identity expression and identity affirmation dimensions), but not significantly so for attraction and social bonding dimensions. ABB participation was predicted by involvement, motor vehicle ownership, and gender, but route safety and weather were not significant predictors. These findings may be of importance to researchers in active transport, city planning, and recreation and leisure. Campus recreation professionals can use the information toward increasing physically active students through bicycle commuting.