Mason J. Campbell

Long-term changes in liana abundance and forest dynamics in undisturbed Amazonian forests

Lianas (climbing woody vines) are important structural parasites of tropical trees and may be increasing in abundance in response to global-change drivers. We assessed long-term (-14-year) changes in liana abundance and forest dynamics within 36 1-ha permanent plots spanning -600 km2 of undisturbed rainforest in central Amazonia. Within each plot, we counted each liana stem (> or = 2 cm diameter) and measured its diameter at 1.3 m height, and then used these data to estimate liana aboveground biomass. An initial liana survey was completed in 1997-1999 and then repeated in 2012, using identical methods. Liana abundance in the plots increased by an average of 1.00% +/- 0.88% per year, leading to a highly significant (t = 6.58, df = 35, P < 0.00001) increase in liana stem numbers. Liana biomass rose more slowly over time (0.32% +/- 1.37% per year) and the mean difference between the two sampling intervals was nonsignificant (t = 1.46, df = 35, P = 0.15; paired t tests). Liana size distributions shifted significantly (chi2 = 191, df = 8, P < 0.0001; Chi-square test for independence) between censuses, mainly as a result of a nearly 40% increase in the number of smaller (2-3 cm diameter) lianas, suggesting that lianas recruited rapidly during the study. We used long-term data on rainfall and forest dynamics from our study site to test hypotheses about potential drivers of change in liana communities. Lianas generally increase with rainfall seasonality, but we found no significant trends over time (1997-2012) in five rainfall parameters (total annual rainfall, dry-season rainfall, wet-season rainfall, number of very dry months, CV of monthly rainfall). However, rates of tree mortality and recruitment have increased significantly over time in our plots, and general linear mixed-effect models suggested that lianas were more abundant at sites with higher tree mortality and flatter topography. Rising concentrations of atmospheric CO2, which may stimulate liana growth, might also have promoted liana increases. Our findings clearly support the view that lianas are increasing in abundance in old-growth tropical forests, possibly in response to accelerating forest dynamics and rising CO2 concentrations. The aboveground biomass of trees was lowest in plots with abundant lianas, suggesting that lianas could reduce forest carbon storage and potentially alter forest dynamics if they continue to proliferate.

Apparent environmental synergism drives the dynamics of Amazonian forest fragments

Many contemporary ecosystems are likely to be affected by multiple environmental drivers, complicating efforts to predict future changes in those ecosystems. We studied long-term changes (1980–2012) in forest dynamics and liana (woody vine) abundance and biomass in fragmented and intact forests of the central Amazon. We did so by contrasting trends in 33 permanent 1-ha plots near forest edges (plot center <100 m from the nearest edge) with those in 36 1-ha plots in intact-forest interiors (150–3300 m from nearest edge). In fragmented and edge-affected forests, rates of tree (≥10 cm diameter at breast height) mortality and recruitment were often sharply elevated, especially in the first 10–15 years after fragmentation. Lianas (≥2 cm stem diameter) also increased markedly in abundance (mean ± SD = 1.78 ± 1.23% per yr) and biomass (1.30 ± 1.39% per yr) over time, especially in plots with high edge-related tree mortality. However, plots in undisturbed forest interiors, which were originally established as experimental controls, also experienced long-term changes. In these plots, tree mortality and recruitment rose significantly over time, as did liana abundance (1.00 ± 0.88% per yr) and biomass (0.32 ± 1.37% per yr). These changes were smaller in magnitude than those in fragments but were nonetheless concerted in nature and highly statistically significant. The causes of these changes in forest interiors are unknown, but are broadly consistent with those expected from rising atmospheric CO2 or regional climate drivers that influence forest dynamics. Hence, the dynamics of Amazonian forest fragments cannot be understood simply as a consequence of forest fragmentation. Rather, the changes we observed appear to arise from an interaction of fragmentation with one or more global- or regional-scale drivers affecting forest dynamics. Both sets of phenomena are evidently increasing forest dynamics and liana abundances in fragmented forests, changes that could reduce carbon storage and alter many aspects of forest ecology.

Economic, Socio-Political and Environmental Risks of Road Development in the Tropics

It is projected that 25 million km of new paved roads will be developed globally by 2050 - enough to encircle the planet more than 600 times. Roughly 90% of new roads will be built in developing nations, frequently in tropical and subtropical regions with high biodiversity and environmental values. Many developing nations are borrowing from international lenders or negotiating access to their natural resources in order to expand their transportation infrastructure. Given the unprecedented pace and extent of these initiatives, it is vital to thoroughly assess the potential consequences of large-scale road and highway projects. In appropriate contexts and locales, new roads can promote sizeable economic and social benefits. If poorly planned or implemented, however, new roads can provoke serious cost overruns, corruption and environmental impacts, while generating sparse economic benefits and intense social and political conflict. Using examples from developing nations, we identify risks that can hinder road projects in wet and dry tropical environments. Such risks, we assert, are often inadequately considered by project proponents, evaluators and the general public, creating a systematic tendency to overestimate project benefits while understating project risks. A more precautionary approach is needed to reduce risks while maximizing benefits of new road projects in the tropics.

Effects of patch size on liana diversity and distributions in the tropical montane evergreen forests of the Nilgiri Mountains, southern India

Weinvestigatetheeffectofpatchsizeonlianadiversityanddistributionin19patchesofmontaneevergreen forest in the Nilgiri hills, Western Ghats, southern India. Additionally, we examined how liana species richness and community assemblage in both edge (within 10 m of the forest edge) and interior regions of forest patches respond to patch size, in order to infer the impact of forest expansion or reduction on the liana communities. A total of 1276 woody liana individuals of 15 species were identified, belonging to 10 genera and nine families. Total species richness of lianas was significantly positively related to forest-patch area, both when analysed for the entire patch, in addition to both core and edge regions when examined separately. Species richness of larger lianas also showed a significant positiverelationshipwithincreasingforestpatcharea.Communityassemblagevariedwithrespecttoforestedge,with shade-dependent species only occurring in interior patch regions, shade-averse species in edge regions, and shade- tolerant species occurring throughout. Disturbance also played a role in determining the response of liana diversity to patch size, with heavily disturbed patches showing no relationship between patch size and diversity, whereas positive relationshipsexistinlowtomoderatelydisturbedpatches.Themostsignificantresultisthechangeinlianacommunity composition between small and larger fragments. Many species present in smaller patches are also present in edge zonesoflargerfragments.Thissuggeststhatlianasareimportantstructuralcomponentsofmontaneforestecosystems, andtheircompositionalpatternsarepossiblydrivenbysuccession.Moreover,thisstudyrevealstheimportanceofedge effect and patch size in influencing liana species richness and compositional patterns.

Degraded tropical rain forests possess valuable carbon storage opportunities in a complex, forested landscape.

Tropical forests are major contributors to the terrestrial global carbon pool, but this pool is being reduced via deforestation and forest degradation. Relatively few studies have assessed carbon storage in degraded tropical forests. We sampled 37,000 m2 of intact rainforest, degraded rainforest and sclerophyll forest across the greater Wet Tropics bioregion of northeast Australia. We compared aboveground biomass and carbon storage of the three forest types, and the effects of forest structural attributes and environmental factors that influence carbon storage. Some degraded forests were found to store much less aboveground carbon than intact rainforests, whereas others sites had similar carbon storage to primary forest. Sclerophyll forests had lower carbon storage, comparable to the most heavily degraded rainforests. Our findings indicate that under certain situations, degraded forest may store as much carbon as intact rainforests. Strategic rehabilitation of degraded forests could enhance regional carbon storage and have positive benefits for tropical biodiversity.

Alternative Routes for a Proposed Nigerian Superhighway to Limit Damage to Rare Ecosystems and Wildlife

The Cross River State Government in Nigeria is proposing to construct a “Cross River Superhighway” that would bisect critical remaining areas of tropical rainforest in south eastern Nigeria. We offer and evaluate two alternative routes to the superhighway that would be less damaging to forests, protected areas, and biological diversity. The first alternative we identified avoids intact forests entirely while seeking to benefit agriculture and existing settlements. The second alternative also avoids intact forests while incorporating existing paved and unpaved roads to limit construction costs. As currently proposed, the superhighway would be 260 km long, would intersect 115 km of intact forests or protected areas, and would cost an estimated ∼US

Can Lianas Assist in Rainforest Restoration

2.5 billion to construct. Alternative Routes 1 and 2 are only slightly longer (∼290 and ∼353 km, respectively) and have markedly lower estimated construction costs (∼US

Forest edge disturbance increases rattan abundance in tropical rain forest fragments

0.92 billion). Furthermore, the alternative routes would have negligible impacts on forests and protected areas and would be better aligned to benefit local communities and agriculture. We argue that alternative routings such as those we examined here could markedly reduce the economic and environmental costs, and potentially increase the socioeconomic benefits, for the proposed Cross River Superhighway.

Road Expansion and the Fate of Africa's Tropical Forests

Can the strategic incorporation of lianas (woody vines) into rainforest restoration plantings enhance biodiversity-conservation outcomes? Lianas are an integral component of primary tropical rainforests yet are often omitted from rainforest restoration plantings as they may damage trees and compete with them for resources. However, there is increasing evidence that many ecological and physiognomic characteristics of lianas may be of some value to restoration plantings, at least in certain contexts. We propose strategies for experimentally incorporating lianas into rainforest-restoration plantings to explore whether they can expedite rainforest establishment and enhance biodiversity-conservation outcomes.

Vegetation and floristics of a lowland tropical rainforest in northeast Australia

Human-induced forest fragmentation poses one of the largest threats to global diversity yet its impact on rattans (climbing palms) has remained virtually unexplored. Rattan is arguably the world’s most valuable non-timber forest product though current levels of harvesting and land-use change place wild populations at risk. To assess rattan response to fragmentation exclusive of harvesting impacts we examined rattan abundance, demography and ecology within the forests of northeastern, Australia. We assessed the community abundance of rattans, and component adult (>3 m) and juvenile (≤3 m) abundance in five intact forests and five fragments (23–58 ha) to determine their response to a range of environmental and ecological parameters. Fragmented forests supported higher abundances of rattans than intact forests. Fragment size and edge degradation significantly increased adult rattan abundance, with more in smaller fragments and near edges. Our findings suggest that rattan increase within fragments is due to canopy disturbance of forest edges resulting in preferential, high-light habitat. However, adult and juvenile rattans may respond inconsistently to fragmentation. In managed forest fragments, a rattan abundance increase may provide economic benefits through sustainable harvesting practices. However, rattan increases in protected area forest fragments could negatively impact conservation outcomes.