Melani M. Schweder

Short‐term sprint interval training increases insulin sensitivity in healthy adults but does not affect the thermogenic response to β‐adrenergic stimulation

Sprint interval training (SIT) and traditional endurance training elicit similar physiological adaptations. From the perspective of metabolic function, superior glucose regulation is a common characteristic of endurance‐trained adults. Accordingly, we have investigated the hypothesis that short‐term SIT will increase insulin sensitivity in sedentary/recreationally active humans. Thirty one healthy adults were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) SIT (n= 12): six sessions of repeated (4–7) 30 s bouts of very high‐intensity cycle ergometer exercise over 14 days; (2) sedentary control (n= 10); (3) single‐bout SIT (n= 9): one session of 4 × 30 s cycle ergometer sprints. Insulin sensitivity was determined (hyperinsulinaemic euglycaemic clamp) prior to and 72 h following each intervention. Compared with baseline, and sedentary and single‐bout controls, SIT increased insulin sensitivity (glucose infusion rate: 6.3 ± 0.6 vs. 8.0 ± 0.8 mg kg−1 min−1; mean ±s.e.m.; P= 0.04). In a separate study, we investigated the effect of SIT on the thermogenic response to beta‐adrenergic receptor (β‐AR) stimulation, an important determinant of energy balance. Compared with baseline, and sedentary and single‐bout control groups, SIT did not affect resting energy expenditure (EE: ventilated hood technique; 6274 ± 226 vs. 6079 ± 297 kJ day−1; P= 0.51) or the thermogenic response to isoproterenol (6, 12 and 24 ng (kg fat‐free mass)−1 min−1: %ΔEE 11 ± 2, 14 ± 3, 23 ± 2 vs. 11 ± 1, 16 ± 2, 25 ± 3; P= 0.79). Combined data from both studies revealed no effect of SIT on fasted circulating concentrations of glucose, insulin, adiponectin, pigment epithelial‐derived factor, non‐esterified fatty acids or noradrenaline (all P > 0.05). Sixteen minutes of high‐intensity exercise over 14 days augments insulin sensitivity but does not affect the thermogenic response to β‐AR stimulation.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate increases maximal oxygen uptake in adult humans.

UNLABELLED Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a component of green tea, increases endurance performance in animals and promotes fat oxidation during cycle ergometer exercise in adult humans. PURPOSE We have investigated the hypothesis that short-term consumption of EGCG delays the onset of the ventilatory threshold (VT) and increases maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). METHODS In this randomized, repeated-measures, double-blind study, 19 healthy adults (11 males and 8 females, age = 26 ± 2 yr (mean ± SE)) received seven placebo or seven EGCG (135-mg) pills. Forty-eight hours before data collection, participants began consuming three pills per day; the last pill was taken 2 h before exercise testing. VT and VO2max were determined from breath-by-breath indirect calorimetry data collected during continuous incremental stationary cycle ergometer exercise (20-35 W·min(-1)), from rest until volitional fatigue. Each condition/exercise test was separated by a minimum of 14 d. RESULTS Compared with placebo, short-term EGCG consumption increased VO2max (3.123 ± 0.187 vs 3.259 ± 0.196 L·min(-1), P = 0.04). Maximal work rate (301 ± 15 vs 301 ± 16 W, P = 0.98), maximal RER (1.21 ± 0.01 vs 1.22 ± 0.02, P = 0.27), and maximal HR were unaffected (180 ± 3 vs 180 ± 3 beats·min(-1), P = 0.87). In a subset of subjects (n = 11), maximal cardiac output (determined via open-circuit acetylene breathing) was also unaffected by EGCG (29.6 ± 2.2 vs 30.2 ± 1.4 L·min(-1), P = 0.70). Contrary to our hypothesis, EGCG decreased VO2 at VT (1.57 ± 0.11 vs 1.48 ± 0.10 L·min(-1)), but this change was not significant (P = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS Short-term consumption of EGCG increased VO2max without affecting maximal cardiac output, suggesting that EGCG may increase arterial-venous oxygen difference.

Influence of Short-Term Consumption of the Caffeine-Free, Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Supplement, Teavigo, on Resting Metabolism and the Thermic Effect of Feeding

Green tea is purported to promote weight loss. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and the thermic effect of feeding (TEF) are significant components of total daily energy expenditure and are partially determined by the sympathetic nervous system via catecholamine‐mediated stimulation of β‐adrenergic receptors. Epigallocatechin‐3‐gallate (EGCG: the most bioactive catechin in green tea) inhibits catechol‐O‐methyltransferase, an enzyme contributing to the degradation of catecholamines. Accordingly, we hypothesized that short‐term consumption of a commercially available EGCG supplement (Teavigo) augments RMR and TEF. On two separate occasions, seven placebo or seven EGCG capsules (135 mg/capsule) were administered to 16 adults (9 males, 7 females, age 25 ± 2 years, BMI 24.6 ± 1.2 kg/m2 (mean ± s.e.)). Capsules (three/day) were consumed over 48 h; the final capsule was consumed 2 h prior to visiting the laboratory. Energy expenditure (ventilated hood technique) was determined at rest and for 5 h following ingestion of a liquid meal (caloric content: 40% RMR). Contrary to our hypothesis, RMR was not greater (P = 0.10) following consumption of EGCG (6,740 ± 373 kJ/day) compared with placebo (6,971 ± 352). Similarly, the area under the TEF response curve (Δ energy expenditure) was also unaffected by EGCG (246,808 ± 23,748 vs. 243,270 ± 22,177 kJ; P = 0.88). EGCG had no effect on respiratory exchange ratio at rest (P = 0.29) or throughout the TEF measurement (P = 0.56). In summary, together RMR and TEF may account for up to 85% of total daily energy expenditure; we report that short‐term consumption of a commercially available EGCG supplement did not increase RMR or TEF.

Sympathetic inhibition attenuates hypoxia induced insulin resistance in healthy adult humans

•  In low‐oxygen environments, such as high‐altitude, control of blood sugar is disrupted. Further, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system is known to increase when the availability of oxygen is decreased. •  We have investigated the possibility that the increase in sympathetic activity is partially responsible for the disruption in blood sugar control. •  Using gasbags filled with low‐oxygen gas, together with a commonly used blood pressure medication (clonidine) that inhibits the sympathetic nervous system, we have shown that breathing low oxygen disrupts blood sugar control, and that this disruption is prevented when the nervous system is inhibited. •  This finding has important implications for people travelling to high altitudes, and for people who suffer from conditions characterized by low oxygen, such as sleep apnoea and lung diseases.

Regulators of Human White Adipose Browning: Evidence for Sympathetic Control and Sexual Dimorphic Responses to Sprint Interval Training

The conversion of white adipose to the highly thermogenic beige adipose tissue has been proposed as a potential strategy to counter the unfavorable consequences of obesity. Three regulators of this conversion have recently emerged but information regarding their control is limited, and contradictory. We present two studies examining the control of these regulators. Study 1: In 10 young men, the plasma concentrations of irisin and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) were determined prior to and during activation of the sympathetic nervous system via hypoxic gas breathing (FIO2 = 0.11). The measurements were performed twice, once with and once without prior/concurrent sympathetic inhibition via transdermal clonidine administration. FGF21 was unaffected by basal sympathetic inhibition (338±113 vs. 295±80 pg/mL; P = 0.43; mean±SE), but was increased during hypoxia mediated sympathetic activation (368±135); this response was abrogated (P = 0.035) with clonidine (269±93). Irisin was unaffected by sympathetic inhibition and/or hypoxia (P>0.21). Study 2: The plasma concentration of irisin and FGF21, and the skeletal muscle protein content of fibronectin type III domain containing 5 (FNDC5) was determined in 19 young adults prior to and following three weeks of sprint interval training (SIT). SIT decreased FGF21 (338±78 vs. 251±36; P = 0.046) but did not affect FNDC5 (P = 0.79). Irisin was decreased in males (127±18 vs. 90±23 ng/mL; P = 0.045) and increased in females (139±14 vs. 170±18). Collectively, these data suggest a potential regulatory role of acute sympathetic activation pertaining to the browning of white adipose; further, there appears to be a sexual dimorphic response of irisin to SIT.

Total daily energy expenditure is increased following a single bout of sprint interval training

Regular endurance exercise is an effective strategy for healthy weight maintenance, mediated via increased total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), and possibly an increase in resting metabolic rate (RMR: the single largest component of TDEE). Sprint interval training (SIT) is a low‐volume alternative to endurance exercise; however, the utility of SIT for healthy weight maintenance is less clear. In this regard, it is feasible that SIT may evoke a thermogenic response above and beyond the estimates required for prevention of weight gain (i.e., >200–600 kJ). The purpose of these studies was to investigate the hypotheses that a single bout of SIT would increase RMR and/or TDEE. Study 1: RMR (ventilated hood) was determined on four separate occasions in 15 healthy men. Measurements were performed over two pairs of consecutive mornings; each pair was separated by 7 days. Immediately following either the first or third RMR measurement (randomly assigned) subjects completed a single bout of SIT (cycle ergometer exercise). RMR was unaffected by a single bout of SIT (7195 ± 285 kJ/day vs. 7147 ± 222, 7149 ± 246 and 6987 ± 245 kJ/day (mean ± SE); P = 0.12). Study 2: TDEE (whole‐room calorimeter) was measured in 12 healthy men, on two consecutive days, one of which began with a single bout of SIT (random order). Sprint exercise increased TDEE in every research participant (9169 ± 243 vs. 10,111 ± 260 kJ/day; P < 0.0001); the magnitude of increase was 946 ± 62 kJ/day (~10%). These data provide support for SIT as a strategy for increasing TDEE, and may have implications for healthy body weight maintenance.

Liposomal-encapsulated Ascorbic Acid: Influence on Vitamin C Bioavailability and Capacity to Protect Against Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury

Intravenous administration of vitamin C has been shown to decrease oxidative stress and, in some instances, improve physiological function in adult humans. Oral vitamin C administration is typically less effective than intravenous, due in part to inferior vitamin C bioavailability. The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of oral delivery of vitamin C encapsulated in liposomes. On 4 separate randomly ordered occasions, 11 men and women were administered an oral placebo, or 4 g of vitamin C via oral, oral liposomal, or intravenous delivery. The data indicate that oral delivery of 4 g of vitamin C encapsulated in liposomes (1) produces circulating concentrations of vitamin C that are greater than unencapsulated oral but less than intravenous administration and (2) provides protection from ischemia–reperfusion-mediated oxidative stress that is similar to the protection provided by unencapsulated oral and intravenous administrations.

Concurrent Beet Juice and Carbohydrate Ingestion: Influence on Glucose Tolerance in Obese and Nonobese Adults

Insulin resistance and obesity are characterized by low nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability. Insulin sensitivity is improved with stimulation of NO generating pathways. Consumption of dietary nitrate (NO3−) increases NO formation, via NO3− reduction to nitrite (NO2−) by oral bacteria. We hypothesized that acute dietary nitrate (beet juice) ingestion improves insulin sensitivity in obese but not in nonobese adults. 12 nonobese (body mass index: 26.3 ± 0.8 kg/m2 (mean ± SE)) and 10 obese adults (34.0 ± 0.8 kg/m2) ingested beet juice, supplemented with 25 g of glucose (carbohydrate load: 75 g), with and without prior use of antibacterial mouthwash to inhibit NO3− reduction to NO2−. Blood glucose concentrations after beet juice and glucose ingestion were greater in obese compared with nonobese adults at 60 and 90 minutes (P = 0.004). Insulin sensitivity, as represented by the Matsuda Index (where higher values reflect greater insulin sensitivity), was lower in obese compared with nonobese adults (P = 0.009). Antibacterial mouthwash rinsing decreased insulin sensitivity in obese (5.7 ± 0.7 versus 4.9 ± 0.6) but not in nonobese (8.1 ± 1.0 versus 8.9 ± 0.9) adults (P = 0.048). In conclusion, insulin sensitivity was improved in obese but not in nonobese adults following coingestion of beet juice and glucose when oral bacteria nitrate reduction was not inhibited. Obese adults may benefit from ingestion of healthy nitrate-rich foods during meals.