Rachel MacKenzie

A Study of the Predictors of Persistence in Stalking Situations

Stalkers engaging in persistent campaigns of harassment have the potential to cause immense harm to their victims and themselves. Being able to estimate which stalkers are likely to persist longest is important to clinicians dealing with both perpetrators and victims. This study of 200 stalkers investigated characteristics of the stalkers and their behaviour that were associated with increased persistence. Logistic regression models were developed to predict low, moderate, and highly persistent stalking. The results supported previous research indicating that the type of prior relationship between stalker and victim is strongly associated with persistence, with prior acquaintances the most persistent, and strangers least. Being aged over 30, sending the victim unsolicited materials, and having an intimacy seeking or resentful motivation was also associated with greater persistence, as was the presence of psychosis.

Violence in stalking situations.

BACKGROUND Stalking is often viewed as a precursor to violence, but determining which stalkers might attack is a difficult task. This study overcomes shortfalls in previous investigations by adopting a pseudo-prospective design and examining potential risk factors for different types of stalker. METHOD Demographic, behavioural and diagnostic information was collected from stalkers referred to a community forensic mental health service (n=211). Potential risk factors for stalking violence were identified using odds ratios and chi2 tests, and entered into logistic regression models. Model utility was assessed using receiver operating characteristic curves. RESULTS Amongst Rejected ex-intimate stalkers, violence was best predicted by previous violence, making threats and being employed (area under the curve=0.75), while for stalkers with other motives and relationships to the victim, being aged less than 30 years, substance use at the time of stalking and prior violence best predicted stalking violence (area under the curve=0.80). CONCLUSIONS Stalkers at increased risk of violence can be accurately identified by examining motivational and relationship type in conjunction with specific relevant risk factors. Previous violence is a particularly important risk factor, as are threats amongst ex-intimate stalkers. Approach behaviours and psychosis were shown to be less useful in predicting violence.

Persistence in stalking: a comparison of associations in general forensic and public figure samples

In stalking research, the risk domain of persistence concerns the likelihood that intrusive behaviours will continue towards the same target. This is a major source of anxiety to victims, and is of practical importance in the allocation of expensive protective resources. This study examines the associations of persistence in two different samples: a public figure sample concerning inappropriate communications and approaches to members of the British Royal Family, and a sample concerning similar behaviours in a general forensic population. Despite differences in methodology and definition, factors associated with persistence proved similar: psychotic illness, intimacy-seeking motivation and multiple or intrusive forms of communication. The results contribute to the emerging literature on the common ground between risk associations in general population and in public figure samples. They underline the prime importance of motivation and of mental health issues in assessing and managing risk. We recommend the adoption of a common conceptual framework in future research.

Approach and escalation in stalking

Approach and escalation from communication to approach are important considerations in stalking, because intrusive behaviours cause victims distress, and approach is a pre-requisite for attack. This study reports the first detailed examination of these behaviours in a ‘general’ stalking sample, specifically a cohort of 211 cases referred to a specialist clinic. In non-ex-intimate stalkers, approach was associated with psychosis and intimacy seeking motivation. The same associations applied to escalation, only more strongly so. A comparison of approach-only cases with escalators showed that the former were significantly less likely to be intimacy seekers and more likely to have non-psychotic diagnoses and to assault. These results are striking similar to those in public figure samples. No associations with approach or escalation were found in ex-intimate cases. These results illustrate the importance of treating psychosis, the substantial overlap between risk factors in public figure and general population victims, and the importance of motivation in stalking risk assessment.

Anti-Stalking Legislation in Practice: Are We Meeting Community Needs?

Anti-stalking legislation introduced across Australia and New Zealand during the 1990s reflected the numerous international constructions of stalking, and led to different legislative definitions in each jurisdiction. In the years since the last laws were introduced, mental health professionals have come to understand more about assessment and management of stalking situations, to the point where the recognised problem behaviour no longer fits each and every legal construct. This article reviews current New Zealand and Australian anti-stalking legislation in an attempt to clarify the different definitions of stalking that clinicians must be familiar with when working with these offenders. The authors also suggest modifications to current legislation that would provide for more effective assessment and treatment of stalkers, and reduce the frequency of stalking charges against individuals who are engaging in far less damaging harassing behaviours.

Management and Treatment of Stalkers: Problems, Options, and Solutions

Legal sanctions alone are often ineffective in preventing stalking because, in the absence of treatment, the fundamental problems driving the stalker remain unresolved. Criminal justice interventions can be problematic because of difficulties in framing anti-stalking legislation and inconsistencies in their application. Civil remedies in the form of restraining orders may be ineffective or counterproductive. Treatment of stalkers involves pharmacotherapy when mental illness is present, but the mainstays of treatment for non-psychotic stalkers are programmes of psychological intervention. These depend on accurate assessment of the risks inherent in stalking and on the identification of psychological deficits, needs, and responsivity factors specific to the individual. Treatment can then be tailored to suit the stalker, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Developing a framework for identifying the risk factors and shaping the delivery of treatment is crucial. Two service innovations developed specifically to work with stalkers are presented as options to overcome current management deficiencies.

Stalkers and intelligence: implications for treatment

The role of psychiatric services in assessing and treating stalkers is increasingly apparent from the high prevalence of stalking and of mental disorder amongst perpetrators. Treatment involves both pharmacotherapy and, crucially, a range of psychological interventions. Design of treatment programmes must necessarily reflect the cognitive abilities of the patients. The psychiatric literature on stalking assumes that stalkers are of above-average intelligence, despite there being no systematic study to support this. We undertook prospective psychiatric evaluation of 147 stalkers referred to a specialist clinic, with the administration of Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI), and compared them with general population norms and an offender sample. Mean stalker intelligent quotient (IQ) was 91.59 (SD 16.2). Only 36% had completed high school. Verbal IQ (VIQ) was significantly lower than performance IQ (PIQ) (p < .001). Previous assumptions about intelligence in stalking appear simplistic and misleading. The verbal/performance deficit is important with regard to the design and delivery of treatment interventions.

Suicide among stalkers

Although stalkers present with multiple suicide risk factors, there have been no studies of the prevalence of suicide within this at risk group. In this study, 138 stalkers were followed up over three years using national coronial records and relative risk ratios used to compare rates of completed suicide with those in the Australian general population, psychiatric patients, and community-based offenders. Stalkers committed suicide at significantly higher rates than any of the comparison groups. Clinicians working with individuals who stalk must be mindful of the risk stalkers pose to themselves, in addition to their victims, and incorporate suicide risk assessments and crisis management into treatment.