Mizuki Ohno

Two distinct pathways of cell death triggered by oxidative damage to nuclear and mitochondrial DNAs.

Oxidative base lesions, such as 8‐oxoguanine (8‐oxoG), accumulate in nuclear and mitochondrial DNAs under oxidative stress, resulting in cell death. However, it is not known which form of DNA is involved, whether nuclear or mitochondrial, nor is it known how the death order is executed. We established cells which selectively accumulate 8‐oxoG in either type of DNA by expression of a nuclear or mitochondrial form of human 8‐oxoG DNA glycosylase in OGG1‐null mouse cells. The accumulation of 8‐oxoG in nuclear DNA caused poly‐ADP‐ribose polymerase (PARP)‐dependent nuclear translocation of apoptosis‐inducing factor, whereas that in mitochondrial DNA caused mitochondrial dysfunction and Ca2+ release, thereby activating calpain. Both cell deaths were triggered by single‐strand breaks (SSBs) that had accumulated in the respective DNAs, and were suppressed by knockdown of adenine DNA glycosylase encoded by MutY homolog, thus indicating that excision of adenine opposite 8‐oxoG lead to the accumulation of SSBs in each type of DNA. SSBs in nuclear DNA activated PARP, whereas those in mitochondrial DNA caused their depletion, thereby initiating the two distinct pathways of cell death.

Hydrogen in Drinking Water Reduces Dopaminergic Neuronal Loss in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease

It has been shown that molecular hydrogen (H2) acts as a therapeutic antioxidant and suppresses brain injury by buffering the effects of oxidative stress. Chronic oxidative stress causes neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease (PD). Here, we show that drinking H2-containing water significantly reduced the loss of dopaminergic neurons in PD model mice using both acute and chronic administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). The concentration-dependency of H2 showed that H2 as low as 0.08 ppm had almost the same effect as saturated H2 water (1.5 ppm). MPTP-induced accumulation of cellular 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), a marker of DNA damage, and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), a marker of lipid peroxidation were significantly decreased in the nigro-striatal dopaminergic pathway in mice drinking H2-containing water, whereas production of superoxide (O2•−) detected by intravascular injection of dihydroethidium (DHE) was not reduced significantly. Our results indicated that low concentration of H2 in drinking water can reduce oxidative stress in the brain. Thus, drinking H2-containing water may be useful in daily life to prevent or minimize the risk of life style-related oxidative stress and neurodegeneration.

An Oxidized Purine Nucleoside Triphosphatase, MTH1, Suppresses Cell Death Caused by Oxidative Stress

MTH1 hydrolyzes oxidized purine nucleoside triphosphates such as 8-oxo-2′-deoxyguanosine 5′-triphosphate (8-oxo-dGTP) and 2-hydroxy-2′-deoxyadenosine 5′-triphosphate (2-OH-dATP) and thus protects cells from damage caused by their misincorporation into DNA. In the present study, we established MTH1-null mouse embryo fibroblasts that were highly susceptible to cell dysfunction and death caused by exposure to H2O2, with morphological features of pyknosis and electron-dense deposits accumulated in mitochondria. The cell death observed was independent of both poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and caspases. A high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis and immunofluorescence microscopy revealed a continuous accumulation of 8-oxo-guanine both in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA after exposure to H2O2. All of the H2O2-induced alterations observed in MTH1-null mouse embryo fibroblasts were effectively suppressed by the expression of wild type human MTH1 (hMTH1), whereas they were only partially suppressed by the expression of mutant hMTH1 defective in either 8-oxo-dGTPase or 2-OH-dATPase activity. Human MTH1 thus protects cells from H2O2-induced cell dysfunction and death by hydrolyzing oxidized purine nucleotides including 8-oxo-dGTP and 2-OH-dATP, and these alterations may be partly attributed to a mitochondrial dysfunction.

Biological significance of the defense mechanisms against oxidative damage in nucleic acids caused by reactive oxygen species: From mitochondria to nuclei

Abstract: In mammalian cells, more than one genome in a single cell has to be maintained throughout the entire life of the cell, namely, one in the nucleus and the other in the mitochondria. The genomes and their precursor nucleotides are highly exposed to reactive oxygen species, which are inevitably generated as a result of the respiratory function in mitochondria. To counteract such oxidative damage in nucleic acids, cells are equipped with several defense mechanisms. Modified nucleotides in the nucleotide pools are hydrolyzed, thus avoiding their incorporation into DNA or RNA. Damaged bases in DNA with relatively small chemical alterations are mainly repaired by the base excision repair (BER) system, which is initiated by the excision of damaged bases by specific DNA glycosylases. MTH1 protein hydrolyzes oxidized purine nucleoside triphosphates, such as 8‐oxo‐dGTP, 8‐oxo‐dATP, and 2‐hydroxy (OH)‐dATP to the monophosphates, and MTH1 are located in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and nucleus. We observed an increased susceptibility to spontaneous carcinogenesis in Mth1‐deficient mice and an alteration of MTH1 expression along with the accumulation of 8‐oxo‐dG in patients with various neurodegenerative diseases. Enzymes for the BER pathway, namely, 8‐oxoG DNA glycosylase (OGG1), 2‐OH‐A/adenine DNA glycosylase (MUTYH), and AP endonuclease (APEX2) are also located both in the mitochondria and in the nuclei, and the expression of mitochondrial OGG1 is altered in patients with various neurodegenerative diseases. We also observed increased susceptibilities to spontaneous carcinogenesis in OGG1 and MUTYH‐deficient mice. The increased occurrence of lung tumor in OGG1‐deficient mice was completely abolished by the concomitant disruption of the Mth1 gene.

MTH1, an oxidized purine nucleoside triphosphatase, protects the dopamine neurons from oxidative damage in nucleic acids caused by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine

We previously reported that 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) accumulates in the cytoplasm of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson’s disease and the expression of MTH1 carrying an oxidized purine nucleoside triphosphatase activity increases in these neurons, thus suggesting that oxidative damage in nucleic acids is involved in dopamine neuron loss. In the present study, we found that levels of 8-oxoG in cellular DNA and RNA increased in the mouse nigrostriatal system during the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive dopamine neuron loss induced by the administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). MTH1-null mice exhibited a greater accumulation of 8-oxoG in mitochondrial DNA accompanied by a more significant decrease in TH and dopamine transporter immunoreactivities in the striatum after MPTP administration, than in wild-type mice. We thus demonstrated that MTH1 protects the dopamine neurons from oxidative damage in the nucleic acids, especially in the mitochondrial DNA of striatal nerve terminals of dopamine neurons.

8-oxoguanine causes spontaneous de novo germline mutations in mice

Spontaneous germline mutations generate genetic diversity in populations of sexually reproductive organisms, and are thus regarded as a driving force of evolution. However, the cause and mechanism remain unclear. 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) is a candidate molecule that causes germline mutations, because it makes DNA more prone to mutation and is constantly generated by reactive oxygen species in vivo. We show here that endogenous 8-oxoG caused de novo spontaneous and heritable G to T mutations in mice, which occurred at different stages in the germ cell lineage and were distributed throughout the chromosomes. Using exome analyses covering 40.9 Mb of mouse transcribed regions, we found increased frequencies of G to T mutations at a rate of 2 × 10−7 mutations/base/generation in offspring of Mth1/Ogg1/Mutyh triple knockout (TOY-KO) mice, which accumulate 8-oxoG in the nuclear DNA of gonadal cells. The roles of MTH1, OGG1, and MUTYH are specific for the prevention of 8-oxoG-induced mutation, and 99% of the mutations observed in TOY-KO mice were G to T transversions caused by 8-oxoG; therefore, we concluded that 8-oxoG is a causative molecule for spontaneous and inheritable mutations of the germ lineage cells.

Germline mutation rates and the long-term phenotypic effects of mutation accumulation in wild-type laboratory mice and mutator mice

The germline mutation rate is an important parameter that affects the amount of genetic variation and the rate of evolution. However, neither the rate of germline mutations in laboratory mice nor the biological significance of the mutation rate in mammalian populations is clear. Here we studied genome-wide mutation rates and the long-term effects of mutation accumulation on phenotype in more than 20 generations of wild-type C57BL/6 mice and mutator mice, which have high DNA replication error rates. We estimated the base-substitution mutation rate to be 5.4 × 10(-9) (95% confidence interval = 4.6 × 10(-9)-6.5 × 10(-9)) per nucleotide per generation in C57BL/6 laboratory mice, about half the rate reported in humans. The mutation rate in mutator mice was 17 times that in wild-type mice. Abnormal phenotypes were 4.1-fold more frequent in the mutator lines than in the wild-type lines. After several generations, the mutator mice reproduced at substantially lower rates than the controls, exhibiting low pregnancy rates, lower survival rates, and smaller litter sizes, and many of the breeding lines died out. These results provide fundamental information about mouse genetics and reveal the impact of germline mutation rates on phenotypes in a mammalian population.

NUDT16 and ITPA play a dual protective role in maintaining chromosome stability and cell growth by eliminating dIDP/IDP and dITP/ITP from nucleotide pools in mammals

Mammalian inosine triphosphatase encoded by ITPA gene hydrolyzes ITP and dITP to monophosphates, avoiding their deleterious effects. Itpa− mice exhibited perinatal lethality, and significantly higher levels of inosine in cellular RNA and deoxyinosine in nuclear DNA were detected in Itpa− embryos than in wild-type embryos. Therefore, we examined the effects of ITPA deficiency on mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Itpa− primary MEFs lacking ITP-hydrolyzing activity exhibited a prolonged doubling time, increased chromosome abnormalities and accumulation of single-strand breaks in nuclear DNA, compared with primary MEFs prepared from wild-type embryos. However, immortalized Itpa− MEFs had neither of these phenotypes and had a significantly higher ITP/IDP-hydrolyzing activity than Itpa− embryos or primary MEFs. Mammalian NUDT16 proteins exhibit strong dIDP/IDP-hydrolyzing activity and similarly low levels of Nudt16 mRNA and protein were detected in primary MEFs derived from both wild-type and Itpa− embryos. However, immortalized Itpa− MEFs expressed significantly higher levels of Nudt16 than the wild type. Moreover, introduction of silencing RNAs against Nudt16 into immortalized Itpa− MEFs reproduced ITPA-deficient phenotypes. We thus conclude that NUDT16 and ITPA play a dual protective role for eliminating dIDP/IDP and dITP/ITP from nucleotide pools in mammals.

Quantitative Analysis of Oxidized Guanine, 8-Oxoguanine, in Mitochondrial DNA by Immunofluorescence Method

8-Oxoguanine (8-oxoG), an oxidized form of guanine, is one of the major mutagenic lesions generated under oxidative stress. Oxidative damage in mitochondrial DNA has been implicated as a causative factor for a wide variety of degenerative diseases as well as for cancer during aging. We established a quantitative method for in situ detection of 8-oxoG in mitochondrial DNA in a single-cell level using a monoclonal antibody. Specific detection of 8-oxoG in mitochondrial DNA was confirmed by pre-treatment of samples with DNase I or MutM, the latter excising 8-oxoG opposite C in DNA. We then analyzed 8-oxoG dynamics in mitochondrial DNA of the wild-type and 8-oxoG DNA glycosylase (OGG1)-deficient mouse cells after exposure to hydrogen peroxide. Intensities for the 8-oxoG immunoreactivity in mitochondrial DNA were increased immediately after the exposure to hydrogen peroxide in both types of cells. The increased intensities returned to basal levels within a few hours only in wild-type cells, but not in OGG1-deficient cells which exhibited the increased intensities even 24 h after the exposure. These results indicate that OGG1 is a major enzyme for excision repair of 8-oxoG in mitochondrial DNA in mouse cells, and that our method described here is appropriate to study 8-oxoG dynamics in mitochondrial DNA.

Position-independent human β-globin gene expression mediated by a recombinant adeno-associated virus vector carrying the chicken β-globin insulator

AbstractThe position-independent expression of transgenes in target cells is an essential subject for determining effective gene therapies. The chicken β-globin insulator blocks the effects of regulatory sequences on transcriptional units at differential domains. We prepared a recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) containing various combinations of the DNase I-hypersensitive site 2 (HS2), 3 (HS3), and 4 (HS4) core elements from the human β-globin locus control region (LCR), the human β-globin gene, and the herpes virus thymidine kinase promoter driven neomycin-resistant gene (neoR) (rHS432, rHS43, rHS42, rHS32, and rHS2), and also rAAV containing two copies of the 250-bp core sequence of the chicken β-globin insulator on both sides of the rHS2 (rIns/HS2/2Ins). After isolating neomycin-resistant mouse erythroleukemia (MEL) cells infected with each rAAV, we analyzed the rAAV genome by Southern blots and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), using primers specific for HS core elements and the human β-globin gene. All clones contained a single copy of the rAAV genome in the chromosome, however, some of them had a rearranged proviral genome. In five clones with a single unrearranged rAAV genome for each rAAV construct, we assayed the expression of the human b-globin gene relative to the endogenous mouse βmaj-globin gene, using quantitative reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR. In clones infected with rHS432, the expression level of the human β-globin gene ranged from 51.6% to 765.6% of that in the mouse βmaj-globin gene. Likewise, in rHS43, the expression level ranged from 36.7% to 259.0%; in rHS42, from 47.8% to 207.0%; in rHS32, from 47.9% to 105.4%; and in rHS2, from 6.1% to 172.1%, indicating a high variability of expression level in clones infected with recombinant virus lacking the insulator. In contrast, in clones infected with rIns/HS2/Ins, the range of expression of the human β-globin gene ranged from 52.8% to 58.3% of that in the mouse βmaj-globin gene. These results indicate that the insulator functioned dramatically to reduce the variability of transgene expression due to the position effect. This insulator-rAAV vector system holds promise to provide a constant level of transgene expression for gene therapy, regardless of the insertion sites on the chromosome.