Noga Shanee

Impending extinction crisis of the world's primates: why primates matter

Impending extinction of the world’s primates due to human activities; immediate global attention is needed to reverse the trend. Nonhuman primates, our closest biological relatives, play important roles in the livelihoods, cultures, and religions of many societies and offer unique insights into human evolution, biology, behavior, and the threat of emerging diseases. They are an essential component of tropical biodiversity, contributing to forest regeneration and ecosystem health. Current information shows the existence of 504 species in 79 genera distributed in the Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Asia. Alarmingly, ~60% of primate species are now threatened with extinction and ~75% have declining populations. This situation is the result of escalating anthropogenic pressures on primates and their habitats—mainly global and local market demands, leading to extensive habitat loss through the expansion of industrial agriculture, large-scale cattle ranching, logging, oil and gas drilling, mining, dam building, and the construction of new road networks in primate range regions. Other important drivers are increased bushmeat hunting and the illegal trade of primates as pets and primate body parts, along with emerging threats, such as climate change and anthroponotic diseases. Often, these pressures act in synergy, exacerbating primate population declines. Given that primate range regions overlap extensively with a large, and rapidly growing, human population characterized by high levels of poverty, global attention is needed immediately to reverse the looming risk of primate extinctions and to attend to local human needs in sustainable ways. Raising global scientific and public awareness of the plight of the world’s primates and the costs of their loss to ecosystem health and human society is imperative.

Effectiveness of locally run conservation initiatives in north-east Peru

Amazonas and San Martin are two of the most densely populated regions in rural Peru and have some of the highest deforestation rates in the country. They are also home to many threatened and endemic species and are considered a high priority for conservation. Under Peruvian law individuals and community groups can create private conservation areas and conservation concessions, and we evaluated the successes and challenges experienced in the creation and management of such areas, using direct observation, questionnaires and key-informant interviews. Our results show that far from being a problem for conservation many rural communities are actively promoting or participating in conservation initiatives on a local scale with landscape-level impacts. These initiatives include land protection, hunting control and reduced deforestation, thus providing effective solutions to threats. The main obstacles we identified in relation to such campesino (peasant farmer) conservation initiatives were the lack of access to support from governmental and non-governmental institutions and to economic resources to fund the extensive bureaucratic processes of registering protected areas. Many campesino communities bypass these restrictions through informal conservation initiatives.

Diagnostic overview of the illegal trade in primates and law enforcement in Peru

Peru has one of the richest primate faunas of any country. The illegal trade in wild primates is one of the largest threats to this fauna in Peru. We characterize the illegal trade in primates through empirical and ethnographic data. We collected data from traffic routes and centers throughout Peru and evaluate current efforts to combat this traffic. Based on our findings from 2,070 instances of wildlife crime involving 6,872 primates, we estimate the domestic trade in primates for pets and bushmeat in Peru in the hundreds of thousands per year, with the larger bodied Atelidae facing the highest direct consequences. We found that government authorities lack sufficient staff, capacity, resources, infrastructure, and protocols to efficiently combat illegal trade in primates. Also, the complicated legal framework and lack of cooperation and antagonism with the public further limit these efforts. Wildlife authorities in Peru are able to confiscate only a fraction of primates traded and mostly intervene in cases of private pet owners rather than traffickers. We estimate that the current rate of illegal trade in primates is comparable to levels of trade prior to the 1973 ban on primates’ exportation. The combination of direct observations on primate trade and ethnographic data allows a comprehensive look at primate trade in Peru. We call upon decision makers and international funders to channel their efforts toward “on the ground” actions such as increasing the ability of the authorities to act, giving them “in action” training in law enforcement and establishing strict control measures against corruption. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22516, 2017.

Measuring Success in a Community Conservation Project: Local Population Increase in a Critically Endangered Primate, the Yellow-Tailed Woolly Monkey (Lagothrix Flavicauda) at La Esperanza, Northeastern Peru

The yellow tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda) is one of the worlds most threatened primate species. It is endemic to a small area of montane forest in northern Peru, an area with high immigration and deforestation rates. Since 2007, community conservation actions have been implemented in the area of Yambrasbamba, a farming community in Amazonas department. These actions included the signing of voluntary pledges by local villagers to control hunting and forest clearance. A first population density survey was carried out in 2008/9, shortly after the implementation of these pledges; a second survey in the same area that replicated the methods used in the previous survey was carried out in 2012/13. Using transect width estimation from line transects and a Normalized Difference Vegetative Index (NDVI) from satellite images, we compared population density and deforestation rates between surveys. Results showed an increase in the L. flavicauda population at the study site, with significant increases in densities of infant (P <0.001) and juvenile individuals (P = 0.019). This suggests that increases are from natural population growth rather than the in-migration of groups or individuals from outlying areas. The NDVI showed low levels of deforestation still occurring in the area, but at a lower rate than the regional and national averages. Our results provide compelling evidence that Community Conservation projects can be successful in highly populated areas, and we urge conservation practitioners to involve local actors when planning and implementing initiatives.

Biogeography and Conservation of Andean Primates in Peru

The Tropical Andes is one of the biologically richest and diverse regions on earth, a biodiversity hotspot especially abundant in endemic species and threatened by human activities. Peru is one of the most biodiverse countries on earth, a global centre for plant, invertebrate and vertebrate species including three endemic primates: the yellow-tailed woolly monkey, Oreonax flavicauda; the Peruvian night monkey, Aotus miconax and the Andean titi monkey, Callicebus oenanthe. Geographically restricted, these endemic primates are found only within the pre-montane and montane cloud forests of the Andes at mid- and high-elevation sites. The biogeography of primates is the result of the complex relationship between geographical, historical and ecological factors. The major geographical and historical factors affecting the biogeography of Andean primates are the uplift of the Andes Mountains, and the presence of refugia and barriers such as the major river systems of the Huallaga and Maranon. The majority of Peruvian primates are found in the eastern Amazonian lowlands but many of these ‘lowland’ species have distributions that include mid- and high altitude sites. The presence of these predominantly lowland species at sites with lower temperatures, higher solar radiation, reduced resource availability and other ecological impacts of increased altitude could be a case of outlying populations expanding their distributions, either naturally or under anthropogenic pressures, to areas with sub-optimal conditions. With an estimated 4.5 million people living in the Peruvian Yungas, there are increasing pressures on this fragile environment. Deforestation and habitat fragmentation are the result of farming and development projects such as road construction and mining. The highest rates of deforestation have occurred in the Departments of San Martin and Amazonas, the main stronghold of Peru’s endemic primate species. Climate change has also had noticeable effects on the cloud forests. Changes in plant phenology and the movement of species to higher altitudes may have negative impacts on the current high altitude species forcing them towards extinction. Further research is required on the biogeography of primates in the Peruvian Andes, in particular focusing on what factors influence the distribution patterns of high altitude primates and how this information can be used to help with future conservation strategies.

Yellow-Tailed Woolly Monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda): Conservation Status, Anthropogenic Threats, and Conservation Initiatives

This chapter examines threats and conservation opportunities for the Critically Endangered yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda), a species endemic to northeastern Peru. Inherent traits make this species susceptible to extinction from threats identified here as habitat loss, hunting, selective logging, road construction, extractive industry, and climate change, all of which are increasing. Using current range estimates, available habitat, and published density estimates, we present here the first estimate for L. flavicauda population size. We estimate a current population of between 88,622 and 10,564 individuals, which represents a reduction of between 46 and 93 % of the estimated original population since 1981. These numbers represent maximum population estimates as they only consider habitat availability, disregarding hunting pressure. It is clear that both the species’ population size and habitat are decreasing. State conservation efforts do not fully mitigate threats to this species, but land protection by private actors, especially rural communities through the creation of protected areas and landscape-level conservation, offers an innovative and increasingly popular conservation alternative.

Primate Surveys in the Marañón-Huallaga Landscape, Northern Peru with Notes on Conservation

Abstract: With about 50 species and subspecies, the diversity of primates in Peru is amongst the highest in the world. Primate field surveys, however, are still scarce for many areas. Perus northern forests lie at the heart of the Tropical Andes and are home to four of the countrys endemic primates: Aotus miconax, Callicebus oenanthe, Oreonax flavicauda, and Saguinus leucogenys. We present here an overview of results from more than five years of primate surveys in northern Peru. Surveys were carried out in the valleys and intervening highlands between the ríos Marañón and Huallaga in the departments of Amazonas, La Libertad, Huánuco and San Martín. Data were gathered between March 2007 and October 2012 from 36 locations at 26 sites. Surveys were carried out as part of biological inventories in proposed conservation areas. In all, 14 species were recorded from 11 genera. The presence or absence of a species was largely determined by altitude. The four endemic species were present in the majority of survey sites. The most common species encountered were Oreonax flavicauda, Ateles belzebuth, Cebus yuracus, and Aotus miconax. The highest species diversities were found at lower altitudes further from human development, although some species previously registered in these regions were not encountered. All areas visited suffered from at least some anthropogenic disturbance, with the majority showing high levels of habitat disturbance, deforestation and hunting.

Creating Modern Community Conservation Organizations and Institutions to Effect Successful Forest Conservation Change

Despite increased investment, current conservation strategies have failed to stop environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity of the earth’s ecosystems with consequent climate change. Community Conservation’s (CC) 30 years of experience has produced a successful, cost-effective, field-tested flexible formula to catalyze communities to stop deforestation and biodiversity loss. Our method focuses on four concepts: 1) catalyzing projects, leaving ownership to on-site community-based organizations (CBOs) or local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); 2) encourag‐ ing creation of CBOs; 3) helping build complex federations or networks for a stronger community voice; and 4) creating conservation contagion for regional change. Based on trust, we initially make the community aware of their special forests and wildlife and ask their help in protecting them. Then we help them create CBOs and build federations of conservation activists to strengthen and empower them to manage their projects and their natural resources. By bringing community members to interact together from within a large region, we strive to create conservation contagion. Case histories from Assam, India; northern Peru; the Huon Peninsula in Papua New Guinea; Madagascar; Belize; and Wisconsin, USA demonstrate successes based on the formation of CBOs and community federations, allowing communities to play a powerful role in protecting and restoring forests.

Preliminary observations on the behavior and ecology of the Peruvian night monkey (Aotus miconax: Primates) in a remnant cloud forest patch, north eastern Peru

The Peruvian night monkey (Aotus miconax) is endemic to the eastern slopes of the Andes in northern Peru. We present preliminary behavioral data on A. miconax collected during 12 months of surveys on a single group living in a 1.4 ha forest fragment near the Centro Poblado La Esperanza, Amazonas Department. Follows were conducted for five nights each month around full moon. The group used 1.23 ha as their home range. Night ranges were between 0.16 and 0.63 ha. Activity budgets were 32 % feeding, 53 % travelling and 13 % resting. Average night path length was 823 m and average travel speed was 117 m/h. The study group has one of the smallest home ranges recorded for a night monkey group, probably the result of its isolated habitat. These results represent the first behavioral data on this species but results are limited by small sample sizes. A. miconax remains one of the least studied of all primates and is threatened by continued expansion of human populations and hunting.

Land Trafficking, Migration, and Conservation in the “No-Man’s Land” of Northeastern Peru:

Peru and especially its northeastern regions are considered a global conservation priority because of high biodiversity and the acute threats they face. Despite the Peruvian state’s declared intention to end forest loss, deforestation is on the rise. This is in part due to rural–rural and urban–rural migration to forest frontier zones. This migration is often organized and led by land traffickers. In this article, we use ethnographic methods and case studies to identify major land trafficking types, the interactions between traffickers and local communities, and conservation initiatives as well as authorities’ capacity to respond to this illicit practice. Land trafficking exists at different scales and can be highly lucrative. Loopholes in Peruvian laws, conflicting policies, and institutional inefficiencies impede effective confrontation of land trafficking and in some cases even encourage it. Corruption plays an essential role in facilitating this trade. Although local people are often aware of the problems related to land trafficking, their ability to control it is greatly impeded by social factors and by the dangers of confronting organized criminals. Land trafficking is seldom studied but has great environmental and social implications and must be addressed both on academic and practical levels in order to confront biodiversity loss related to migration to forest frontiers.