Sam Shanee

Impending extinction crisis of the world's primates: why primates matter

Impending extinction of the world’s primates due to human activities; immediate global attention is needed to reverse the trend. Nonhuman primates, our closest biological relatives, play important roles in the livelihoods, cultures, and religions of many societies and offer unique insights into human evolution, biology, behavior, and the threat of emerging diseases. They are an essential component of tropical biodiversity, contributing to forest regeneration and ecosystem health. Current information shows the existence of 504 species in 79 genera distributed in the Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Asia. Alarmingly, ~60% of primate species are now threatened with extinction and ~75% have declining populations. This situation is the result of escalating anthropogenic pressures on primates and their habitats—mainly global and local market demands, leading to extensive habitat loss through the expansion of industrial agriculture, large-scale cattle ranching, logging, oil and gas drilling, mining, dam building, and the construction of new road networks in primate range regions. Other important drivers are increased bushmeat hunting and the illegal trade of primates as pets and primate body parts, along with emerging threats, such as climate change and anthroponotic diseases. Often, these pressures act in synergy, exacerbating primate population declines. Given that primate range regions overlap extensively with a large, and rapidly growing, human population characterized by high levels of poverty, global attention is needed immediately to reverse the looming risk of primate extinctions and to attend to local human needs in sustainable ways. Raising global scientific and public awareness of the plight of the world’s primates and the costs of their loss to ecosystem health and human society is imperative.

Distribution Survey and Threat Assessment of the Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey (Oreonax flavicauda; Humboldt 1812), Northeastern Peru

Peruvian yellow-tailed woolly monkeys (Oreonax flavicauda) are considered Critically Endangered (IUCN Categories A4c). The International Primatological Society also considers them one of the world’s 25 most endangered primate species and therefore a conservation priority. However, there is little concerted conservation action, and the existing protected area network may be inadequate to protect this species from extinction. Until recently this species has been the focus of few studies and its distributional limits remain unknown. I present results of a range-wide survey of Oreonax flavicauda in northeastern Peru. I conducted 53 presence/absence field surveys at 43 sites between March 2007 and March 2010, with data collected for an additional 7 sites from other researchers. I chose sites where the species was previously reported or following suggestions from predictive GIS modeling. Oreonax flavicauda was present at 35 sites, all presence records were in Ficus spp.–dominated cloud forests between 1500 and 2650xa0m above sea level. I give the geographical limits of this species distribution throughout the north, east, and west of its range; the exact extent of its range to the south requires further investigation. Oreonax flavicauda continues to be threatened throughout its range. The major threats I identified at the survey locations were the continued conversion of forests to cattle pasture, opening of new access routes into virgin areas, and both commercial and subsistence hunting. My results suggest that existing conservation measures may be inadequate at protecting this species but that substantial opportunities do exist. Further surveys need to be made in the southern distribution of this species to determine more accurately extant habitat.

Population Density Estimates of the Critically Endangered Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkeys (Oreonax flavicauda) at La Esperanza, Northeastern Peru

The critically endangered yellow tailed woolly monkeys (Oreonax flavicauda, Humboldt 1812) are endemic to the cloud forests of northeastern Peru. We surveyed populations of Oreonax flavicauda in the Centro Poblado La Esperanza, Amazonas department between May 2008 and March 2009. We conducted census work in an area comprising disturbed primary cloud forest interspersed with pasture lying between 3 protected areas, all of which are known to contain populations of Oreonax flavicauda. We used standardized line transect methodology to census an area of ca. 700xa0ha. We also recorded group size and composition. We compared the results of transect width estimation, Krebs’ method, and an ad libitum total group count. We calculated individual densities of 8.27/km2 and 9.26/km², and group densities of 0.93/km2 and 1.04/km² using Krebs’ method and transect width estimation, respectively. Average group size was 8.9, with 1–3 adult males, 1–6 adult females, and 0–6 juveniles and infants. The results from our transect surveys coincided well with our estimated total group count. Our results are similar to those from previous studies, although differences in methodologies and site-specific environmental factors make comparison difficult, and suggest that Oreonax flavicauda is able to survive in disturbed habitat when hunting pressure is low.

Disappearing in the Night: An Overview on Trade and Legislation of Night Monkeys in South and Central America

The international trade in night monkeys (Aotus spp.), found throughout Central and South America, has been regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975. We present a quantitative analysis of this trade from all 9 range countries, over 4 decades, and compare domestic legislation to CITES regulations. Night monkeys were exported from 8 of the 9 habitat countries, totalling 5,968 live individuals and 7,098 specimens, with trade of live individuals declining over time. In terms of species, the most commonly traded was Aotus nancymaae (present in Brazil, Colombia, Peru) followed by A. vociferans (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) and A. zonalis (Colombia, Panama). There was no significant correlation between levels of trade and species geographic range size or the number of countries in which a species occurs. Five countries have legislation that meets CITES requirements for implementation, whereas the other 4 countries legislation showed deficiencies. Research conducted in Colombia, Peru, and Brazil suggests significant cross-border trade not captured in official international trade registers. Although international trade has diminished, current trends suggest that populations of rarer species may be under unsustainable pressure. Further research is needed to quantify real trade numbers occurring between habitat countries.

Protected area coverage of threatened vertebrates and ecoregions in Peru: Comparison of communal, private and state reserves

Protected areas (PAs) are a conservation mainstay and arguably the most effective conservation strategy for species protection. As a megadiverse country, Peru is a priority for conservation actions. Peruvian legislation allows for the creation of state PAs and private/communal PAs. Using publicly available species distribution and protected area data sets we evaluated the coverage of Threatened terrestrial vertebrate species distributions and ecoregions provided by both kinds of PA in Peru. Perus state PA system covers 217,879xa0km2 and private/communal PAs cover 16,588xa0km2. Of the 462 species of Threatened and Data Deficient species we evaluated, 75% had distributions that overlapped with at least one PA but only 53% had ≥10% of their distributions within PAs, with inclusion much reduced at higher coverage targets. Of the species we evaluated, 118 species are only found in national PAs and 29 species only found in private/communal PAs. Of the 17 terrestrial ecoregions found in Peru all are represented in PAs; the national PA system included coverage of 16 and private/communal PAs protect 13. One ecoregion is only protected in private/communal PAs, whereas four are only covered in national PAs. Our results show the important role private/communal PAs can play in the protection of ecological diversity.