R. D. Lockett

The development and structure of flame instabilities and cellularity at low Markstein numbers in explosions

Abstract Flame instabilities and the formation of cellular structures during spherical gaseous explosions have been studied experimentally using natural light and schlieren high-speed cine photography, as well as single-shot planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) from the OH radical. High-pressure, rich-hydrocarbon and lean-hydrogen flames at low Markstein numbers were employed. Ranges of unstable wavelengths have been identified as a function of Markstein and Peclet numbers. The cine photography enables the dynamics of cell growth and fissioning to be studied and qualitatively interpreted, in terms of flame stretch rates and thermodiffusion. The PLIF technique enabled unstable wavelengths to be measured and flame fracture at negatively stretched cracks to be observed. A cascade of unstable wavelengths terminates in a cellular structure. This structure appears at a second critical Peclet number. The smaller cells are continually destabilizing and restabilizing. As they increase in size, the localized stretch rate on the cell surface decreases and the cell becomes unstable. It restabilizes by fissioning into smaller cells with higher localized stretch rates. The cells are bounded by cracks in regions of negative curvature. At sufficiently small Markstein numbers the cracks are fractured. The results are interpreted within the theoretical framework of the stability analysis of Bechtold and Matalon.

Wrinkling and curvature of laminar and turbulent premixed flames

Abstract Premixed iso-octane and methane-air flames have been ignited in a fan stirred bomb in laminar conditions and turbulent flow fields at 1 and 5 bar. Sheet images of the flames were captured using LIF of OH. In spherically expanding laminar flames, the shape of cusps in the flame surface was shown to change from a dent for flames with positive Markstein numbers to a Huygen type cusp at lower Markstein numbers and finally complete quench was observed at the cusp tip on flames with negative Markstein numbers. The curvatures of turbulent flame edges were calculated and pdf’s generated. The pdf’s were symmetrical about a mean of zero, as the turbulence intensity was increased the pdf’s broadened and became flatter. Turbulent rich iso-octane-air flames (φ = 1.4) exhibited areas of quench in the flame front, the distance between areas of quench was shown to increase as the turbulence intensity was raised. The 5 bar flames exhibited higher curvature than those at 1 bar. The influence of laminar flame and turbulent flow properties on the curvature and hence flame wrinkling were investigated.

The structure and stability of the laminar counter-flow partially premixed methane/air triple flame

Abstract The flame stability map defining the regime of existence of a counter-flowing laminar partially premixed methane–air triple flame has been determined using OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF). The stability limits were determined through the observation of flame merging and flame extinction, a function of rich and lean equivalence ratios, and mean axial strain rate. Relatively quantitative OH species profiles and Rayleigh scattering profiles have been measured for three flame conditions. Axial flow velocity profiles, and nozzle exit velocity profiles have been determined for two of the three conditions using 1-D laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV). The diffusion flame extinction axial velocity profile has been measured, and the local extinction axial strain rate has been determined to be 710 s−1.

Investigation of spray characteristics in a spray-guided DISI engine using PLIF and LDV

The spray characteristics of a prototype piezo pintle-type injector are investigated in a single-cylinder optical direct injection spark ignition (DISI) engine based on the spray-guided concept where mixture preparation is dominated by the spray dynamics. The high-pressure piezo electric injector has an annular nozzle providing a hollow cone spray. Planar Laser-induced Fluorescence (PLIF) and 2-dimensional Mie scattering were used to study the spray structure and characteristics under different in-cylinder back pressures and to obtain cycle resolved measurements of the planar fuel distribution inside the cylinder. The obtained results give information about the extent of charge stratification, spray stability and fuel/air mixture formation process under operating conditions. PLIF results revealed that there is a rich mixture at the spark plug position for all these conditions, ensuring stable combustion over the entire engine operating range. In addition, LDV measurements were carried out in order to provide information on the in-cylinder flow field near the spark plug, and to assess its influence on the mixture formation process. LDV results showed that the influence of the flow field strength during the late compression injection on the liquid fuel spray structure is low. The tumble generated in the cylinder is transformed into turbulence at the end of the compression stroke, which aids fuel evaporation and vapour dispersion just before ignition.

An experimental investigation into the effect of hydrodynamic cavitation on diesel

Samples of commercial diesel were subjected to 40 h of intense cavitation flow across a diesel injector in a specially designed high-pressure recirculation flow rig. Changes to the optical absorption and scattering properties of the diesel over time were identified by the continuous measurement of spectral extinction coefficients at 405 nm by means of a simple optical arrangement. Identical diesel samples were maintained at 70 °C for 40 h in a heated water bath, in order to distinguish the effects of hydrodynamic cavitation and temperature on the cavitated diesel samples. The commercial diesel samples subjected to high-pressure cavitation flow and water bath heating revealed a response to the flow and temperature history that was identified by an increase in the optical extinction coefficients of the cavitated and heated samples. The contribution of cavitation flow and temperature to the variation in spectral extinction coefficient was identified. It was concluded that the increases observed in the spectral extinction coefficients of the cavitated commercial diesels were caused by the cavitation affecting the aromatics in the commercial diesel samples.

Instabilities and soot formation in spherically expanding, high pressure, rich, iso-octane-air flames

Flame instabilities, cellular structures and soot formed in high pressure, rich, spheri- cally expanding iso-octane-air flames have been studied experimentally using high speed Schlieren cinematography, OH fluorescence, Mie scattering and laser induced incandescence. Cellular structures with two wavelength ranges developed on the flame surface. The larger wavelength cellular structure was produced by the Landau-Darrieus hydrodynamic instability, while the short wavelength cellular structure was produced by the thermal-diffusive instability. Large negative curvature in the short wavelength cusps caused local flame quenching and frac- ture of the flame surface. In rich flames with equivalence ratio φ > 1.8, soot was formed in a honeycomb-like structure behind flame cracks associated with the large wavelength cellular structure induced by the hydrodynamic instability. The formation of soot precursors through low temperature pyrolysis was suggested as a suitable mechanism for the initiation of soot formation behind the large wavelength flame cracks..

An Optical Characterization of the Effect of High-Pressure Hydrodynamic Cavitation on Diesel

Most modern high-pressure common rail diesel fuel injection systems employ an internal pressure equalization system in order to provide the force necessary to support needle lift, enabling precise control of the injected fuel mass. This results in the return of a substantial proportion of the high-pressure diesel back to the fuel tank. The diesel fuel flow occurring in the injector spill passages is expected to be a cavitating flow, which is known to promote fuel ageing. The cavitation of diesel promotes nano-particle formation through induced pyrolysis and oxidation, which may result in deposit formation in the vehicle fuel system. A purpose-built high-pressure cavitation flow rig has been employed to investigate the stability of unadditised crude-oil derived diesel and a paraffin-blend model diesel, which were subjected to continuous hydrodynamic cavitation flow across a single-hole research diesel nozzle. Continuous in-situ spectral optical extinction (405 nm) has been employed to identify, determine and measure variations in fuel composition as a function of the cavitation duration. The results of two high-pressure diesel cavitation experiments are reported. The first dealt with the effect of injection pressure on the rate of induced variation in chemical composition of diesel, and concluded that faster degradation of the fuel occurred at higher pressure. The second experiment involved an investigation into the variation in composition occurring in diesel fuel and the paraffin-blend model diesel, subjected to cavitating flow over a longer duration. Observed differences suggest that the high-pressure cavitation resulted in hydrodynamic sono-chemical destruction of aromatics in the diesel, which is believed to lead to carbonaceous nano-particle formation.

An Optical Characterization of Atomization in Non-Evaporating Diesel Sprays

High-speed planar laser Mie scattering and Laser Induced Fluorescence (PLIF) was employed for the determination of Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) distribution in non-evaporating diesel sprays. The effect of rail pressure, distillation profile, and consequent fuel viscosity on the drop size distribution developing during primary and secondary atomization was investigated. Samples of conventional crude-oil derived middle-distillate diesel and light distillate kerosene were delivered into an optically accessible mini-sac injector, using a customized high-pressure common rail diesel fuel injection system. Two optical channels were employed to capture images of elastic Mie and inelastic LIF scattering simultaneously on a high-speed video camera at 10 kHz. Results are presented for sprays obtained at maximum needle lift during the injection. These reveal that the emergent sprays exhibit axial asymmetry and vorticity. An increase in the rail pressure was observed to lead to finer atomization, with larger droplets observable in the neighbourhood of the central axis of the spray, decreasing with radius towards the spray boundaries. Finally, the light kerosene was observed to produce smaller droplets (as measured by Sauter mean diameter), relative to the conventional diesel, suggesting a correlation between distillation profile and viscosity, and mean spray droplet size.

Cavitation Inception in Immersed Jet Shear Flows

Cavitation inception occurring in immersed jets was investigated in a purpose-built mechanical flow rig. The rig utilized custom-built cylindrical and conical nozzles to direct high-velocity jets of variable concentration n-octane-hexadecane mixtures into a fused silica optically accessible receiver. The fluid pressure upstream and down-stream of the nozzles were manually controlled. The study employed a variety of acrylic and metal nozzles. The results show that the critical upstream pressure to downstream pressure ratio for incipient cavitation decreases with increasing n-octane concentration for the cylindrical nozzles, and increases with increasing n-octane concentration for the conical nozzle.

An Investigation into the Effect of Hydrodynamic Cavitation on Diesel using Optical Extinction

A conventional diesel and paraffinic-rich model diesel fuel were subjected to sustained cavitation in a custom-built high-pressure recirculation flow rig. Changes to the spectral extinction coefficient at 405 nm were measured using a simple optical arrangement. The spectral extinction coefficient at 405 nm for the conventional diesel sample was observed to increase to a maximum value and then asymptotically decrease to a steady-state value, while that for the paraffinic-rich model diesel was observed to progressively decrease. It is suggested that this is caused by the sonochemical pyrolysis of mono-aromatics to form primary soot-like carbonaceous particles, which then coagulate to form larger particles, which are then trapped by the filter, leading to a steady-state spectral absorbance.