Ragava Lokasani

Sources for beyond extreme ultraviolet lithography and water window imaging

Lithography tools are being built and shipped to semiconductor manufacturers for high volume manufacturing using extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) at a wavelength of 13.5 nm. This wavelength is based on the availability of Mo/Si multilayer mirrors (MLMs) with a reflectivity of ~70% at this wavelength. Moreover, the primary lithography tool manufacturer, ASML, has identified 6.x nm, where x~7, as the wavelength of choice for so-called Beyond EUVL, based on the availability of La/B4C MLMs, with theoretical reflectance approaching 80% at this wavelength. The optimum sources have been identified as laser produced plasmas of Gd and Tb, as n = 4–n = 4 transitions in their ions emit strongly near this wavelength. However, to date, the highest conversion efficiency obtained, for laser to EUV energy emitted within the 0.6% wavelength bandwidth of the mirror is only 0.8%, pointing to the need to identify other potential sources or consider the selection of other wavelengths. At the same time, sources for other applications are being developed. Conventional sources for soft x-ray microscopy use H-like line emission from liquid nitrogen or carbon containing liquid jets which can be focused using zone plates. Recently the possibility of using MLMs with n = 4−n = 4 emission from a highly charged Bi plasma was proposed and subsequently the possibility of using Δn = 1 transitions in 3rd row transition elements was identified. All of these studies seek to identify spectral features that coincide with the reflectance characteristics of available MLMs, determine the conditions under which they are optimized and establish the maximum conversion efficiencies obtainable. Thus, there is a need for systematic studies of laser produced plasmas of a wide range of elements as some of the challenges are similar for all of these sources and some recent results will be presented.

Soft X-ray emission from molybdenum plasmas generated by dual laser pulses

We demonstrate efficient enhancement of soft X-ray (SXR) emission from molybdenum plasmas produced using dual pulse irradiation, in which 10-ns and 150-ps pre-pulses were followed by a 150-ps main pulse. The number of photons was observed to be 5.3 × 1016 photons/sr, which corresponded to a conversion efficiency of 1.5%/sr in λ = 2.34–4.38 nm region at a pulse separation time of 1 ns with the 150-ps pre-pulse. The conversion efficiency became 1.3 times as large as that produced by a single pulse. The results indicate the advantage of dual pulse irradiation using sub-ns pre-and main pulses to produce the bright plasmas required for applications such as laboratory based SXR microscopy.

XUV spectra of 2nd transition row elements: identification of 3d–4p and 3d–4f transition arrays

The use of laser produced plasmas (LPPs) in extreme ultraviolet/soft x-ray lithography and metrology at 13.5 nm has been widely reported and recent research efforts have focused on developing next generation sources for lithography, surface morphology, patterning and microscopy at shorter wavelengths. In this paper, the spectra emitted from LPPs of the 2nd transition row elements from yttrium (Z = 39) to palladium (Z = 46), with the exception of zirconium (Z = 40) and technetium (Z = 43), produced by two Nd:YAG lasers which delivered up to 600 mJ in 7 ns and 230 mJ in 170 ps, respectively, are reported. Intense emission was observed in the 2–8 nm spectral region resulting from unresolved transition arrays (UTAs) due to 3d–4p, 3d–4f and 3p–3d transitions. These transitions in a number of ion stages of yttrium, niobium, ruthenium and rhodium were identified by comparison with results from Cowan code calculations and previous studies. The theoretical data were parameterized using the UTA formalism and the mean wavelength and widths were calculated and compared with experimental results.

Characteristics of soft x-ray and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) emission from laser-produced highly charged rhodium ions

We have characterized the soft x-ray and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) emission of rhodium (Rh) plasmas produced using dual pulse irradiation by 150-ps or 6-ns pre-pulses, followed by a 150-ps main pulse. We have studied the emission enhancement dependence on the inter-pulse time separation and found it to be very significant for time separations less than 10 ns between the two laser pulses when using 6-ns pre-pulses. The behavior using a 150-ps pre-pulse was consistent with such plasmas displaying only weak self-absorption effects in the expanding plasma. The results demonstrate the advantage of using dual pulse irradiation to produce the brighter plasmas required for XUV applications.

XUV generation from the interaction of pico- and nanosecond laser pulses with nanostructured targets

Laser-produced plasmas are intense sources of XUV radiation that can be suitable for different applications such as extreme ultraviolet lithography, beyond extreme ultraviolet lithography and water window imaging. In particular, much work has focused on the use of tin plasmas for extreme ultraviolet lithography at 13.5 nm. We have investigated the spectral behavior of the laser produced plasmas formed on closely packed polystyrene microspheres and porous alumina targets covered by a thin tin layer in the spectral region from 2.5 to 16 nm. Nd:YAG lasers delivering pulses of 170 ps (Ekspla SL312P )and 7 ns (Continuum Surelite) duration were focused onto the nanostructured targets coated with tin. The intensity dependence of the recorded spectra was studied; the conversion efficiency (CE) of laser energy into the emission in the 13.5 nm spectral region was estimated. We have observed an increase in CE using high intensity 170 ps Nd:YAG laser pulses as compared with a 7 ns pulse.

Source development for extreme ultraviolet lithography and water window imaging

Sources based on laser produced plasmas of tin (Sn) are currently being developed for extreme ultraviolet lithography for semiconductor fabrication. Since they operate at short wavelength (13.5 nm) they are capable of producing features with critical dimensions in the 10 nm range. Already next generation lithography sources operating at an even lower wavelength of around 6.7-6.8 nm have been proposed and research is ongoing on their feasibility for both large scale manufacturing and ‘at wavelength’ metrology. The high resolution afforded by such short wavelengths is also of use for applications such as surface patterning and microscopy and the results of recent experiments to identify sources for operation in the ‘water window’ (2.34-4.2 nm), where carbon absorbs strongly but water does not are summarized.

Spectra of plasmas of Ru, Rh, Pd and Mo produced with nanosecond and picosecond laser pulses

This paper describes the extreme ultraviolet and soft x-ray emission recorded in the 2-12 nm region from Mo, Ru, Rh and Pd ions present in the laser produced plasmas. The spectra were found to be dominated by 3p-3d transitions in the 5-8 nm region, which shift slowly to shorter wavelengths with the increasing atomic number, and by 3d-4p and 3d-4f transitions at shorter wavelengths. These transitions, in a number of neighbouring ion stages, were distinguished by comparison with Cowan code calculations and previously reported data. The experimental results show that strong emission can be observed at the 6.X nm region for Ru, Rh and Pd plasmas.