Reidar Säfvenbom

Positive movement experiences: approaching the study of athletic participation, exercise, and leisure activity through relational developmental systems theory and the concept of embodiment.

Exercise and athletic participation are widely recognized as important aspects of healthy lifestyles and human development; yet most of the research on youth athletic participation, exercise, and leisure activity has not yet adopted a theoretical framework useful for understanding the development of individual engagement with these movement contexts. In order to gain an adequate understanding of the developmental experiences of involvement in movement contexts, understanding the role of the active individual and the mutually influential relations between individual and context are important. In this chapter, we present a new approach to the study of involvement in movement contexts, using relational developmental systems theory and the concept of embodiment to forward the idea of positive movement experiences (PMEs). The concept of PMEs may facilitate better understanding of involvement in movement contexts as a fundamental component of human life in general, and of youth development in particular.

Issues and Problems in the Organization of Children's Sport: A Case Study of Norway.

The focus of this article is on the organization of children’s sport in Norway. More specifically, the paper sets out to examine (i) the changing pattern of relationships, and in particular the changing balance of conflict and cooperation, between the several organizations with responsibility for children’s sport, and (ii) how sport for children is regulated in order to protect children against the dangers associated with competitive pressures, overspecialization and burnout. These questions are answered by tracing the key policy changes and initiatives in relation to children’s sport. With reference to the organization of children’s sport, the ideological struggles between schools and sport organizations over the nature and objectives of sport and physical activity are traced from the 1950s through to recent attempts to promote an Active Sports policy, which represent possible partnerships between several governmental ministries (culture, health and education), schools, and sport clubs. With reference to protecting children against competitive pressures and early overspecialization, the article traces the development from the first advisory guidelines for children’s sporting participation through to mandatory regulations and finally to the recognition of children’s rights in sport.

Sport policy in Norway

Norwegian sport policy and organization leans on a historically developed model of the division of labour between public authorities and voluntary sport organizations. State policy for sport is administered by the Department of Sport Policy in the Ministry of Cultural Affairs. The state funds sport facilities and supports voluntary sport organizations. It articulates various justifications for supporting sport, which relate to health, education and culture. The voluntary sport sector consists of the umbrella organization – The Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports – and its network of national special sport organizations, district sport organizations, regional special sport organizations, local sport councils and over 12,000 sport clubs. The vast majority of the work in sport clubs is voluntarily conducted. The established form of organization and the autonomy of the sport clubs create challenges for the implementation of sport policies. The state lacks adequate policy tools to use to assist in the implementation of its various policy goals through the voluntary system. In that respect, it is suggested that future directions for sport policy should build on a better understanding of (1) the local sport clubs providing sport activities and (2) youth – often the target group for policy intervention.

Sports clubs as accessible developmental assets for all? Adolescents’ assessment of egalitarianism vs. elitism in sport clubs vs. school

School and sport clubs are considered important public institutions in the nationwide scaffolding of developmental assets for adolescents. However, external assets’ impact on individuals’ internal assets is not given and developmental institutions do not necessarily function as the society would like to believe. Previous qualitative studies from Norway indicate that organized youth sport appears as competitive and exclusive and the purpose of the present study was therefore to assess a national sample of adolescents’ perceptions of their local sports clubs in terms of egalitarianism (inclusiveness) and elitism (exclusiveness). A comparison with their assessments of their local school was performed. This study offers a youth development perspective on personal experience, and a sociological sport policy perspective focusing on sports for all. A sample of Norwegian adolescents’ (N = 2055) appraisal of their local school and sports club was assessed and the results showed no significant cross-domain difference between the two institutions regarding the perception of egalitarianism/inclusiveness. However, the adolescents rated the sports club as significantly more elitist and thus more exclusive compared to schools. The perception of inclusiveness was positively related to a measure of parenting quality while the perception of sports clubs as elitist was positively related to age among girls, but not among boys. The results confirm an incongruity between the Norwegian ‘sport for all’ policy and adolescents’ assessment of their local sports club, and this article questions the use of democratic and egalitarian rhetoric in sports policy documents emphasizing the concepts as democracy, loyalty, equality, community, health, integrity and tolerance.

On the stability of psychological hardiness: A three-year longitudinal study.

More than 30 years of research has established psychological hardiness as an important individual resiliency resource. One important question still remaining is whether psychological hardiness can be trained. The present study explored this question longitudinally within the context of a 3-year military academy training program. Cadets from 3 different Norwegian military academies (N = 293) completed hardiness questionnaires during the first week of their training, and then again at the end of each year, resulting in a total of 4 waves of data. Using hierarchical linear modeling, no statistically significant effect of time on hardiness scores was found. The nonsignificant growth parameter was examined further using Bayesian statistics as an indicator of the relative evidence for the null hypothesis of no change over time versus the alternative hypothesis of change. The resulting Bayes factor provided substantial support in our data for the null hypothesis of no hardiness development during the 3-year officer training programs.

The interactive roles of mastery climate and performance climate in predicting intrinsic motivation

This study examined the interplay between perceived mastery and performance climates in predicting increased intrinsic motivation. The results of a two‐wave longitudinal study comprising of 141 individuals from three military academies revealed a positive relationship between a perceived mastery climate and increased intrinsic motivation only for individuals who perceived a low performance climate. This finding suggests a positive relationship between a perceived mastery climate and increased intrinsic motivation only when combined with low perceptions of a performance climate. Hence, introducing a performance climate in addition to a mastery climate can be an undermining motivational strategy, as it attenuates the positive relationship between a mastery climate and increased intrinsic motivation. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Running with Dewey: is it possible to learn to enjoy running in High School Physical Education?

This study is based on an action research project labelled ‘Running with Dewey’ implemented in a second-year High School Physical Education (PE) class. The purpose of the project was to analyse students’ response to a running programme based on experiential learning. Eight students participated in alternative PE for 8 weeks. The action research project facilitated an autonomy supportive and reflection supportive climate, where students were individually given the freedom to choose their own form of running, and reflect on questions concerning the experience of running after each lesson. The data collection consists of participant observation and in-depth interviews. The findings show that many students have experienced running in PE as primarily unenjoyable. The education has to large extent been based on teacher instruction with no possibilities for individual involvement in, choice of, or reflection on the experience. Due to the possibility to choose a form of running they like, the students appreciated the autonomy supportive climate in the project. There are large individual differences in what form of running the different students prefer. The findings indicate that when personal needs guide the form of running, and the students are encouraged to reflect upon their experience, the students experience the running as more enjoyable.

THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC SELF-EFFICACY, INTRINSIC MOTIVATION, AND PERCEIVED COMPETENCE

Abstract This study investigated the moderating role of intrinsic motivation for military studies on the relationship between academic self-efficacy and change in perceived military competence. We present two concurrent hypotheses based on theoretical interaction effects of intrinsic motivation. Data from 245 cadets from three military academies revealed a positive relationship between self-efficacy and an increase in perceived military competence only for cadets with lower levels of intrinsic motivation. This suggests that, with lower intrinsic motivation, beliefs about one’s capabilities to organize and take courses of action to attain certain goals may make a crucial difference in cadets’ compliance to exert effort to increase their military competence. In contrast, self-efficacy seems less important for increased perception of military competence in cadets with higher intrinsic motivation. These cadets probably increase their military competence mainly as a result of the pleasure they gain when engaging in educational activities. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

THE IMPACT OF PERSONALITY AND SELF-EFFICACY ON ACADEMIC AND MILITARY PERFORMANCE: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF SELF-EFFICACY

Abstract In order to optimize recruitment and the overall outcome of educational programmes, it is crucial to understand personal determinants of achievement. While several cognitive abilities and skills individually predict performance in academic and professional settings, it is less clear how personality translates into performance. This study addresses the impact of the Big Five personality trait, conscientiousness, on academic performance and instructor performance ratings and examines the mediating role of self-efficacy. Analysis of longitudinal data (Time 1: n = 166 (conscientiousness); Time 2: n = 161 (self-efficacy); Time 3: n = 136 (military performance) and n = 156 (academic performance)) from three military academies in Norway showed that conscientiousness was related to both military and academic performance. Moreover, self-efficacy emerged as a partial mediator for the relationship between conscientiousness and performance.

Exploring the interplay between the motivational climate and goal orientation in predicting maximal oxygen uptake

Abstract Drawing upon achievement goal theory, this study explored the interplay between the perceived motivational climate, achievement goals and objective measurements of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). The results of a study of 123 individuals from three Norwegian military academies revealed that under the condition of a high-performance orientation there is a stronger positive relationship between performance climate and VO2max for individuals reporting a low (rather than high)-mastery orientation. Furthermore, we found that for individuals with a high-mastery orientation there is a stronger positive relationship between mastery climate and VO2max for individuals reporting a low (rather than high)-performance orientation. These findings contribute to achievement goal theory by providing support for an interactionist person–environment fit perspective. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.