Richard Scritchfield

Gated IR Imaging with 128 × 128 HgCdTe Electron Avalanche Photodiode FPA

The next generation of IR sensor systems will include active imaging capabilities. One example of such a system is a gated-active/passive system. The gated-active/passive system promises long-range target detection and identification. A detector that is capable of both active and passive modes of operation opens up the possibility of a self-aligned system that uses a single focal plane. The detector would need to be sensitive in the 3-5 μm band for passive mode operation. In the active mode, the detector would need to be sensitive in eye-safe range, e.g. 1.55 μm, and have internal gain to achieve the required system sensitivity. The MWIR HgCdTe electron injection avalanche photodiode (e-APD) not only provides state-of-the-art 3-5 μm spectral sensitivity, but also high avalanche photodiode gain without minimal excess noise. Gains of greater than 1000 have been measured in MWIR e-APDs with a gain independent excess noise factor of 1.3. This paper reports the application of the mid-wave HgCdTe e-APD for near-IR gated-active/passive imaging. Specifically a 128x128 FPA composed of 40 μm pitch, 4.2 μm to 5 μm cutoff, APD detectors with a custom readout integrated circuit was designed, fabricated, and tested. Median gains as high as 946 at 11 V bias with noise equivalent inputs as low as 0.4 photon were measured at 80 K. A gated imaging demonstration system was designed and built using commercially available parts. High resolution gated imagery out to 9 km was obtained with this system that demonstrated predicted MTF, precision gating, and sub 10 photon sensitivity.

Linear mode photon counting with the noiseless gain HgCdTe e-avalanche photodiode

Abstract. A linear mode photon counting focal plane array using HgCdTe mid-wave infrared (MWIR) cutoff electron initiated avalanche photodiodes (e-APDs) has been designed, fabricated, and characterized. The broad spectral range (0.4 to 4.3 μm) is unique among photon counters, making this a “first of its kind” system spanning the visible to the MWIR. The low excess noise [F(M)≈1] of the e-APDs allows for robust photon detection while operating at a stable linear avalanche gain in the range of 500–1000. The readout integrated circuit (ROIC) design included a very high gain-bandwidth product resistive transimpedance amplifier (3×1013  Ω-Hz) and a 4 ns output digital pulse width comparator. The ROIC had 16 high-bandwidth analogs and 16 low-voltage differential signaling digital outputs. The 2×8 array was integrated into an LN2 Dewar with a custom leadless chip carrier and daughter board design that preserved high-bandwidth analog and digital signal integrity. The 2×8 e-APD arrays were fabricated on 4.3 μm cutoff HgCdTe and operated at 84 K. The measured dark currents were approximately 1 pA at 13 V bias where the measured avalanche photodiode gain was 500. This translates to a predicted dark current induced dark count rate of less than 20 KHz. Single photon detection was achieved with a photon pulse signal-to-noise ratio of 13.7 above the amplifier noise floor. A photon detection efficiency of 50% was measured at a photon background limited false event rate of about 1 MHz. The measured jitter was in the range of 550–800 ps. The demonstrated minimum time between distinguishable events was less than 10 ns.

Application of an end-to-end linear mode photon-counting (LMPC) model to noiseless-gain HgCdTe APDs

Linear-Mode Photon Counting (LMPC) detection requires a combined system consisting of a semiconductor avalanche photodiode (APD), a high-gain low-noise amplifier, and a comparator circuit. Modeling these aspects of the system requires a combination of semiconductor detector theory, electronics circuit modeling, and classic decision theory. Because of the disparate skills involved, it is difficult to both model and build such devices. In this paper, we present an end-to-end model of the LMPC detector that contains all the required theory. As part of the decision theory aspect of LMPC technology, we present a three-dimensional Receiver Optimization Characteristic (ROC) curve that contains the key performance aspects of the LMPC as a function of the comparator threshold setting. We present nomenclature and specification methods that provide for unambiguous definitions of the combined-system detector performance for both the fabricators and users of LMPC technology. Finally, we apply the model to a noiseless-gain HgCdTe APD, ROIC, and comparator device being developed by DRS and GEOST in order to demonstrate the photon counting end result, as well as several key intermediate values in the signal chain.

Linear mode photon counting from visible to MWIR with HgCdTe avalanche photodiode focal plane arrays

Results of characterization data on linear mode photon counting (LMPC) HgCdTe electron-initiated avalanche photodiode (e-APD)focal plane arrays (FPA) are presented that reveal an improved understanding and the growing maturity of the technology. The first successful 2x8 LMPC FPA was fabricated in 2010 [1]. Since then a process validation lot of 2x8 arrays was fabricated. Five arrays from this lot were characterized that replicated the previous 2x8 LMPC array performance. In addition, it was unambiguously verified that readout integrated circuit (ROIC) glow was responsible for most of the false event rate (FER) of the 2010 array. The application of a single layer metal blocking layer between the ROIC and the detector array and optimization of the ROIC biases reduced the FER by an order of magnitude. Photon detection efficiencies (PDEs) of greater than 50% were routinely demonstrated across 5 arrays, with one array reaching a PDE of 70%. High resolution pixel-surface spot scans were performed and the junction diameters of the diodes were measured. The junction diameter was decreased from 31 μm to 25 μm resulting in a 2x increase in E-APD gain from 470 on the 2010 array to 1100 on one of the 2013 FPAs. Mean single photon signal to noise ratios of >12 were demonstrated at excess noise factors of 1.2-1.3. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) performed measurements on the delivered FPA that verified the PDE and FER data.

Performance and modeling of the MWIR HgCdTe electron avalanche photodiode

The operation of the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) HgCdTe cylindrical electron injection avalanche photodiode (e-APD) is described. The measured gain and excess noise factor are related to the to the collection region fill factor. A 2D diffusion model calculates the time dependent response and steady state pixel point spread function for cylindrical diodes, and predicts bandwidths near 1 GHz for small geometries. A 2 μm diameter spot scan system was developed for point spread function and crosstalk measurements at 80 K. An electron diffusion length of 13.4 μm was extracted from spot scan data. Bandwidth data are shown that indicate bandwidths in excess of 300 MHz for small unit cells geometries. Dark current data, at high gain levels, indicate an effective gain normalized dark density count as low as 1000 counts per μs per cm2 at an APD gain of 444. A junction doping profile was determined from capacitance-voltage data. Spectral response data shows a gain independent characteristic.