Roser Pintó

Students' difficulties in reading images. Comparing results from four national research groups

The four research studies from different European partner countries reported in this Special Issue have some common results. They study the difficulties encountered by students when reading images, but each research deals with distinctive kinds of images (see table 1). Over and above this diversity of images, arising from the different interests of the participating teams, the research has much in common. First, their diversity has been framed inside a common methodology defined and shared between the partners. This methodology implies common research questions (What are students’ difficulties in reading images? How aware are teachers of these students’ difficulties?); common lines of analysis (through the delimitation of a set of features of the images which may lead students to misreadings); similar ways of collecting data (interviews and questionnaires to students and teachers), and qualitative analysis of students’ descriptions or teachers’ comments. Second, this diversity implies a controlled variety that enriches the results. This variance of the graphical characteristics and of the disciplinary concepts represented has made it possible to detect many fine details. On the other hand, the similarity of the types of difficulties students had in reading images permits us to infer more global conclusions. Following this procedure, the four enquiries offer a considerable number of comparable elements or factors, in spite of the multiplicity of images that have been used, and the different scientific background of the students interviewed. The analyses of the different research teams are based in a common theoretical framework for describing images. This theoretical framework, largely informed by social semiotics, considers the existence of a visual language capable of transmitting concepts. More specifically, images are considered to be an important didactic tool for teaching science. The visual language has its own norms and structures, as does verbal language. Thus images cannot be considered trivially understandable and transparent. Misuse of the visual language can affect the communication of the concepts intended to be represented by the image. Thus, on one hand an image that has not been well designed may transmit wrong ideas and, on the other hand, a lack of knowledge of the visual language may hinder the interpretation of an image.

Scientific Processes in PISA Tests Observed for Science Teachers.

A research study, mainly based on the notion of ‘scientific literacy’ from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2003 assessment framework, was carried out obtaining data from the administration of an open written questionnaire with items covering three central scientific processes—describing, explaining and predicting scientific phenomena; understanding scientific investigation; and interpreting scientific evidence and conclusions—to 30 experienced in‐service secondary school science teachers. The purpose was to analyse their views regarding the competences on the mentioned scientific processes assessed by Science PISA tests: which of the competences assessed were the most frequently identified by teachers, which of the competences they considered presenting difficulties for their students, and, finally, which activities they used in their classes to promote similar competences. Our results indicated that teachers had different perceptions of one or other scientific processes considered relevant for scientific literacy in the PISA framework. Their awareness of the expected students’ difficulties did not necessarily match the competences intended to be assessed by either PISA or what they thought to be assessed. Moreover, their views differed depending not only on the type of scientific process but also on the underlying subject. Concern about the students’ need of reading fluently with understanding and of paying special attention during the test time was also observed.

Teaching acoustic properties of materials in secondary school: testing sound insulators

Teaching the acoustic properties of materials is a good way to teach physics concepts, extending them into the technological arena related to materials science. This article describes an innovative approach for teaching sound and acoustics in combination with sound insulating materials in secondary school (15–16-year-old students). Concerning the subject matter to be taught, a review of specialized literature on architectural acoustics and acoustic properties of materials is presented. A teaching/learning sequence on the acoustic properties of materials using a modelling and enquiry approach is introduced. A central experiment to test the capacity of sound attenuation of materials and to determine whether they behave as sound reflectors or sound absorbers is discussed in detail.

Modelling the teachers' feedback process for the design of an electronic interactive science tool with automatic feedback

This paper models the feedback teachers give to students who are using an interactive computer tutorial (Nefreduca) to help them understand key biological concepts related to the kidney. Nefreduca consists of a series of open source science inquiry based web learning materials targeted at children with chronic kidney disease. It utilises a scenario based approach drawing on the work of Lijnse (1995) and Buty et al. (2004). The hospital teachers who assisted the children with their use of Nefreduca reported learning gains with the system but there is no automatic feedback for autonomous learning with Nefreduca when children are unsupported by a teacher. An ethnographic approach was adopted to then understand how teachers provided feedback to the students in order to devise a model of supportive feedback to the chronically ill students, which can be implemented in the next version of Nefreduca.

On the Transfer of Teaching-Learning Materials from One Educational Setting to Another

We report on an effort to exchange educational materials developed by working groups of science education researchers and teachers in two different educational systems. The two teaching-learning sequences, one on Acoustic and the other on Electromagnetic Properties of Materials were designed, developed and refined through classroom implementation at the local level. After the modules were exchanged, each working group undertook an effort to adapt and implement the received materials in the new setting and to monitor the changes made. The analysis of the collected data reveals the types of adaptations that were deemed necessary for acceptable transfer of the materials by each group. Our analysis also reveals those features of this collaborative effort that facilitate the process of transfer of teaching-learning sequences in new settings. Our main finding is that adaptation is unavoidable in any process of transfer of innovative instructional materials. A good way to attain a workable balance between specification and flexibility of knowledge to be transferred is to develop specified teaching-learning sequences accompanied by a set of core aspects that must be agreed by the members of the host context with the explicit intent to avoid drastic mutations. This process has been facilitated by researcher-teacher collaboration to manage the degree and nature of the adaptations. We discuss the educational implications of our findings with respect to requirements for promoting usability of educational innovations in different contexts.

Hot brakes and energy-related concepts: is energy lost?

This paper describes a secondary school experience which is intended to help students to think profoundly about some energy-related concepts. It is quite different to other experiences of mechanics because the focus is not on the quantitative calculation of energy conservation but on the qualitative understanding of energy degradation. We first present an experience where students study the friction produced between a wheel and a piece of copper foil that acts as a brake pad. Then, we present an educational approach specially designed for the experience. Some visual representations have also been specially designed to support the learning process.

The Process of Iterative Development of a Teaching/Learning Sequence on Acoustic Properties of Materials

This chapter describes a case study of the process of design, implementation and refinement of an innovative teaching/learning sequence (TLS) aimed at tenth graders (15- to 16-year-old students) that deals with sound attenuation using different materials. The theoretical framework used to guide the design of the sequence structure, the selection of contents and the pedagogical approach are described. This chapter also reports the development of the teaching/learning sequence, carried out throughout two cycles of field testing to gradually improve the efficacy of the sequence in promoting better performance in students. Throughout this iterative development, we identified the problematic aspects of the sequence during its classroom implementation and analyzed the types of changes introduced to overcome students’ and teachers’ difficulties using the sequence and the critical reasons for those changes.

Fostering European Students’ STEM Vocational Choices

There are many influences on students’ career aspirations towards Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). These include a variety of cognitive and attitudinal factors, which require careful consideration. It has been acknowledged that industry possesses expertise and resources which can help STEM education address the main factors involved in this process. Using data from a pan-European project ECB-inGenious, aimed to enhance students’ aspirations towards STEM careers by engaging schools in collaboration with industry, we were able to assess a variety of contemporary initiatives developed by European industries for STEM learning and career education and analyse their impact on teachers and students. The results demonstrate that school-industry partnerships can provide for this complexity and have a positive role to play in addressing the needs for STEM enrichment and career learning in school. However, our study has confirmed that some gaps and barriers present strong challenges to the establishment, effective implementation and sustainability of such kind of partnership. We have also shown that for a partnership to be effective, it has to be sustainable and have a long-term commitment on both sides. Such partnerships are not easy to develop and require additional structural and organisational support and guidance on how to make this experience as worthwhile as it should be. The research evidence makes clear that the longer teachers stayed in the project, the more their confidence and skill in addressing students’ STEM career aspirations grew, bringing marked improvement in students’ knowledge and motivation for STEM education and careers.

Computer Simulations and Students’ Difficulties in Reading Visual Representations in Science Education

Computer simulations can provide learning opportunities in science education, allowing students to deal with virtual phenomena and to manipulate or modify parameters that would otherwise be impossible to observe. After the progressive introduction of computer simulations in school contexts over the last decades, there has been widespread scientific discussion about their impact in science teaching and learning.

Identifying secondary-school students’ difficulties when reading visual representations displayed in physics simulations

ABSTRACT Computer simulations are often considered effective educational tools, since their visual and communicative power enable students to better understand physical systems and phenomena. However, previous studies have found that when students read visual representations some reading difficulties can arise, especially when these are complex or dynamic representations. We have analyzed how secondary-school students read the visual representations displayed in two PhET simulations (one addressing the friction-heating at microscopic level, and the other addressing the electromagnetic induction), and different typologies of reading difficulties have been identified: when reading the compositional structure of the representation, when giving appropriate relevance and semantic meaning to each visual element, and also when dealing with multiple representations and dynamic information. All students experienced at least one of these difficulties, and very similar difficulties appeared in the two groups of students, despite the different scientific content of the simulations. In conclusion, visualisation does not imply a full comprehension of the content of scientific simulations per se, and an effective reading process requires a set of reading skills, previous knowledge, attention, and external supports. Science teachers should bear in mind these issues in order to help students read images to take benefit of their educational potential.