Russell A. Jones

Factors determining choice of a comparison other

Abstract Subjects were tested in groups of nine for the presence of the positively valued trait of intellectual flexibility (Pos conditions) or the negatively valued trait of intellectual rigidity (Neg conditions). The subjects were told the approximate range of the groups test scores (R conditions) or they were not told the range (NR conditions). After the tests were scored, all subjects were told that they ranked fifth in the group of nine and were given their own scores. In the first variation of the experiment, the subjects were then asked to indicate which other score in the group (according to rank) they would most like to see. The subjects were then asked to indicate a second choice. It was predicted that: (1) NR subjects would attempt to determine the range by first choosing the highest numerical score, and (2) among R subjects, those in the Pos condition would choose a higher score for their first choice, while those in the Neg condition would choose a lower score, both groups thus comparing in the positively valued direction, and (3) among R subjects, the most frequent choice in the positively valued direction would be of the most similar other. All predictions were supported. In the second variation, the subjects were asked to indicate which other person in the group they would like as an interaction partner later in the hour. As in the first experiment, a second choice was also obtained. The strongest tendency was for subjects to choose the two most extreme others in the positively valued direction, although there was also a significant tendency to choose the two most similar others, as well as the best and worst others. When choosing a referent person for comparison, an individuals first need is to determine the boundaries of the scale. Given the scale boundaries, he attempts to confirm similarity with those better off and then to confirm dissimilarity with those worse off. The necessity of interacting publicly with the referent person increases choice of the most “attractive” others.

Internal states or external stimuli: Observers' attitude judgments and the dissonance-theory-self-persuasion controversy

Abstract Bem (1965, 1967a) has proposed a self-judgment model of attitude change in an attempt to account for a variety of hypotheses derived from dissonance theory. One derivation from Bems model is that observer-subjects should be able to discriminate the circumstances controlling the behavior of involved subjects and to estimate accurately the attitudes of involved subjects at the end of the experimental procedure. This derivation has been supported in serveral “interpersonal replications” conducted by Bem. It was hypothesized that these results were obtained because Bems descriptions of the experimental procedures allowed observer-subjects to perceive systematic differences between conditions in initial attitudes of involved subjects. A series of experiments was performed in an attempt to replicate Bems results and then to show that observer-subjects cannot accurately predict the results of experiments when perceptions of initial attitudes of the involved subjects are controlled. The results of these experiments indicated that attribution of differential initial attitudes had produced the earlier results and that observer-subjects cannot predict the outcomes of attitude-change experiments when perceptions of initial attitudes are controlled by design.

On the perceived meaning of symptoms.

The importance of understanding the manner in which symptoms are interpreted is generally recognized, but has received relatively little direct research attention. In an attempt to obtain some evidence on the meaning attached to each of a set of 45 symptoms, subjects were asked to rate the symptoms on eight semantic properties. The symptom ratings on the various properties were then correlated and the correlation matrix subjected to a principal components factor analysis. Three factors of perceived meaning emerged. The first factor is defined by the extent to which symptoms are perceived as threatening, disruptive and painful. The second factor consists of the familiarity of symptoms and the perceived personal responsibility for their occurrence. The third factor reflects how embarrassing the symptoms are. This structure of preceived meaning of symptoms is discussed with reference to the literature on delay in seeking medical care.

Persuasiveness of one- and two-sided communications as a function of awareness there are two sides ☆

Abstract It was hypothesized that the persuasiveness of a one-sided communication would be reduced more than that of a two-sided communication when the audience was made aware there were two plausible sides to the issue. Subjects were informed they would hear the prosecution summary for a court trial, and about half of the subjects were further informed that it was not an open-and-shut case. Cross-cutting this variation, about half of the subjects were exposed to a one-sided prosecution communication while the rest were exposed to a two-sided communication. The predicted interaction between awareness of there being two plausible sides and one- versus two-sided communications was supported. These effects did not seem to be accounted for by perceived bias in the communications and were explained in terms of reactions to pressure to adopt or reject a particular position on an issue.

Systems Of Values And Their Multidimensional Representations.

The purposes of the research were: (1) to elicit spontaneously mentioned values from a large and diverse sample of respondents, (2) to compare the spontaneously mentioned values with Rokeachs terminal and instrumental values, (3) to determine the ways in which both sets of values were perceived as varying on selected independently measured properties, and (4) to provide structural representations of both value systems. The spontaneously mentioned values were interpretable in terms of the focus of concern (Self versus Society) and beliefs about how these concerns were to be achieved. The spontaneously mentioned values also revealed a simpler structure than Rokeachs values. The results are discussed in terms of the errors inherent in constraining respondents to a fixed response format and the implications for cross cultural research on the underlying structure of value systems.

The effect on dissonance of surprise consequences

Abstract The hypothesis that volition in commitment is a sufficient condition for later negative consequences to create dissonance has not been supported by recent evidence. The more specific hypothesis that the magnitude of dissonance aroused by a commitment will be reduced or increased by subsequent, unexpected, positive and negative consequences, respectively, was suggested and tested in the following way. Under the guise of consumer research, subjects were given a choice between two attractive LP records. Some of the subjects were forewarned that by selecting the right record they could also win two free movie tickets, while other subjects were not forewarned. After the choice, half of the forewarned and half of the unforewarned subjects learned that they had won two free movie tickets by their selection of a record, while the other half learned that they had not won the two free tickets by their selection. A control condition without mention of tickets established the amount of dissonance reduction from the choice per se. A measure of change in attractiveness of the records from before and after the choice indicated that the magnitude of dissonance was affected by winning or not winning the tickets only when subjects were forewarned. It was concluded that surprise consequences probably do not affect the magnitude of pre-existent dissonance and that “felt responsibility” for consequences may be an appropriate concept for understanding the relevant evidence.

Discriminative Stimuli as Determinants of Consonance and Dissonance.

Abstract A factorial experiment was conducted in which counterattitudinal advocacy was elicited from independent groups of subjects under either of two levels of decision freedom and in the presence of one of three distinctively colored stimulus lights. For all subjects one light had been previously established as a discriminative stimulus for making truthful statements (truth light), a second light had been established as the discriminative stimulus for making false statements (lie right), and a third light had not been previously illuminated (control light). As predicted, stimulus conditions during advocacy differentially affected postexperimental attitudes only when the subject was allowed relatively great freedom to refuse to make a tape recording of counterattitudinal statements, and postexperimental attitudes were most congruent with behavior when advocacy was elicited under conditions of free choice in the presence of the truth light. The implications of these results for dissonance theory and the more recently enunciated self-judgment model of attitude change are discussed.

Variation in Initial Procedures and the Stability of Dimensions Extracted from Free Response Data.

The purpose of the research was to examine the stability of dimensions extracted from a body of free response data under conditions of variation in the initial data reduction procedures. Data consisted of over 1500 expressions of concern and questions raised by an elderly population. Complete sequences of analytic steps were conducted on the data by two groups of experimenters working independently. These sequences included determining representative units to be scaled, developing instructions for obtaining proximity measures, recruiting subjects, and administering the sorting tasks necessary to obtain proximity measures. In spite of dramatic differences in procedures at each of these steps, the structures of the resulting multidimensional configurations obtained by the two groups were identical. Selected, independently measured properties were used to interpret the configurations. In both cases, a three dimensional solution defined by the properties Health Related, Quality of Lire, and Individual versus Societal Responsibility appeared optimal.