Ruth E. Mann

Assessing Risk for Sexual Recidivism: Some Proposals on the Nature of Psychologically Meaningful Risk Factors:

Risk assessment and treatment for sexual offenders should focus on individual characteristics associated with recidivism risk. Although it is possible to conduct risk assessments based purely on empirical correlates, the most useful evaluations also explain the source of the risk. In this review, the authors propose that the basic requirements for a psychologically meaningful risk factor are (a) a plausible rationale that the factor is a cause of sexual offending and (b) strong evidence that it predicts sexual recidivism. Based on the second of these criteria, the authors categorize potential risk factors according to the strength of the evidence for their relationship with offending. The most strongly supported variables should be emphasized in both assessment and treatment of sexual offenders. Further research is required, however, to establish causal connections between these variables and recidivism and to examine the extent to which changes in these factors leads to reductions in recidivism potential.

An Exploration of Protective Factors Supporting Desistance From Sexual Offending

This article considers factors that support or assist desistance from sexual offending in those who have previously offended. Current risk assessment tools for sexual offending focus almost exclusively on assessing factors that raise the risk for offending. The aim of this study was to review the available literature on protective factors supporting desistance from sexual offending. This article discusses the potential value of incorporating protective factors into the assessment process, and examines the literature on this topic to propose a list of eight potential protective domains for sexual offending. The inclusion of notions of desistance and strengths may provide additional guidance to the assessment and treatment of those who sexually offend. Further research investigations are recommended to consolidate the preliminary conclusions from this study regarding the nature and influence of protective factors in enabling individuals to desist from further offending.

Attitudes supportive of sexual offending predict recidivism: a meta-analysis

Attitudes supportive of sexual offending figure prominently in theories of sexual offending, as well as in contemporary assessment and treatment practices with sex offenders. Based on 46 samples (n = 13,782), this meta-analysis found that attitudes supportive of sexual offending had a small, yet reasonably consistent, relationship with sexual recidivism (Cohen’s d = .22). To the extent that differences were observed, attitudes predicted recidivism better for child molesters than for rapists. There was no difference in the predictive accuracy of attitudes assessed at pretreatment or at posttreatment. The current study indicates that attitudes supportive of sexual offending is a psychologically meaningful risk factor for sex offenders. However, given that many different constructs have been designated as sex offender attitudes, further research and theory is needed to understand how these various constructs contribute to recidivism.

Victim Empathy Intervention With Sexual Offenders Rehabilitation, Punishment, or Correctional Quackery?

A sexual offender is thought to have victim empathy when he has a cognitive and emotional understanding of the experience of the victim of his sexual offense. Most sex offender treatment programs devote significant time to developing victim empathy. The authors examine three meta-analytic studies and some individual studies that suggest victim empathy work is unnecessary, or even harmful. Service user studies, however, report positive reactions to victim empathy work. The authors conclude that the enthusiasm for victim empathy work as a rehabilitative endeavor is disproportionate given the weak evidence base and the lack of a coherent theoretical model of change. However, because the research is inconclusive, it is not possible to conclude that victim empathy work is “correctional quackery.” We suggest a research program to clarify whether or not victim empathy intervention for sexual offenders has value.

Direct and Indirect Measures of Sexual Maturity Preferences Differentiate Subtypes of Child Sexual Abusers

To aid risk assessment, management, and treatment planning it is essential to assess child sexual abusers’ deviant sexual interests (DSI) and preferences (DSP) for sex with children. However, measurement of DSI/DSP is fraught with psychometric problems. In consequence, research interest has shifted to latency-based indirect measures as a measurement approach to complement self-report and physiological assessment. Utilizing the Explicit and Implicit Sexual Interest Profile (EISIP)—a multimethod approach consisting of self-report, viewing time, and Implicit Association Test (IAT) DSI/DSP measures—we replicated phallometric DSI/DSP differences between child sexual abuser subgroups in a sample of intrafamilial, extrafamilial, and child pornography offenders. DSI/DSP was associated with recidivism risk, offense-behavioral measures of pedophilic interest, and sexual fantasizing. It also negatively correlated with antisociality. Distinguishing between child sexual abuser subtypes and being related to recidivism risk, the EISIP is a useful tool for sexual offender assessments.

Sex offender treatment: The case for manualization

Abstract This paper sets out the case for the manualization of sex offender treatment. The movement towards evidence-based practice in psychotherapy has led to strongly voiced opposing views on the value of manualization. However, “what works” evidence, i.e. the meta-analytical research behind the Risk–Needs–Responsivity model of offender rehabilitation, as well as the broader psychotherapy literature, demonstrates that manualized treatment is usually more effective. Manualized treatment is also more likely to be replicable and focused upon criminogenic targets. Arguments against manualization include the claim that it restricts therapeutic artistry, but this is not necessarily a bad thing. This paper also proposes some important characteristics of a good manual, which will ensure that treatment is structured and targeted appropriately, but which will not override the importance of a constructive therapeutic relationship between treatment provider and offender. The review concludes that carefully designed manuals are essential for sex offender treatment to be demonstrably successful, and for successful treatment to be replicated.

Cognition, Empathy, and Sexual Offending

Most empathy research in the forensic context has assumed that empathy has two components. In this two-component model, the cognitive component involves perspective taking, and the affective component involves experiencing appropriate emotion. In this review, we identify how this assumption has both dominated and limited empathy research with offenders, nearly all of which has been conducted with sexual offenders. We propose instead that five components are involved in the experience of empathy: perspective taking, the ability to experience emotion, a belief that others are worthy of compassion and respect, situational factors, and an ability to manage personal distress. We suggest that the non-situational factors that blocked empathy for the victim at the time of a sexual offense are probably other dispositions known to be related to sexual offending, such as sexual preoccupation, generalized hostility to others, implicit theories about children and sex, and/or poor coping with negative emotions. We conclude with directions for practice and research, and urge greater caution in correctional policies on victim empathy programs.

Self-reported schemas in sexual offenders

The aim of this study was to develop a self-report instrument to identify schemas in sexual offenders. A schema was defined as a structure, with cognitive contents such as attitudes, beliefs, rules and assumptions centred on a coherent theme, which directs some aspects of cognitive processing. A questionnaire containing items drawn from offenders explanations for their offending was administered to 657 imprisoned sexual offenders. Exploratory factor analysis yielded two factors, labelled Dominance and Disadvantaged. Both factors showed good internal reliability, test–retest reliability and construct validity. The factors are best conceptualised as modes, containing cognitive-conceptual, motivational, behavioural and physiological components. It is likely that both modes play a role in sexual offending, but the nature of their influence needs further investigation.

Why do sexual offenders refuse treatment

Abstract Theories of offender motivation for treatment have proposed that external factors may be as important as internal factors in creating a state of readiness for treatment. This paper reports an exploratory study of the barriers to treatment for incarcerated sexual offenders. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of interview and questionnaire data from treatment refusers and accepters suggested that refusers were less aware of the effectiveness of treatment, reported seeing negative side effects of treatment in others and felt they had a higher social status in prison which could be damaged by attending treatment. While this study does not demonstrate a causal link between these experiences and the decision to refuse treatment, it seems reasonable to suggest that take-up of treatment could be increased by more sustained efforts to build relationships with treatment refusers and by the provision of accessible information about treatment and its potential benefits.

Who Benefits From Cognitive Skills Programs? Differential Impact by Risk and Offense Type

Cognitive skills programs, which teach problem-solving skills and perspective taking, have a strong evidence base for their ability to reduce recidivism with convicted populations. This study explored whether the Enhanced Thinking Skills program, delivered over several years to 21,000 male prisoners in England and Wales, reduced reoffending for some categories of offenders more than others by comparing predicted with actual reconviction rates. Consistent with earlier research, attending the program was associated with significantly reduced reoffending for sexual offenders (a 13 percentage point reduction), violent offenders (17 point reduction), and other non-acquisitive offenders (10-12 points), but not for offenders convicted of burglary or robbery. After controlling for risk, age, previous offenses committed, sentence length, and program completion, current offense type persisted as an independent and significant predictor of reoffending. Implications for the targeting of cognitive skills programs from this evaluation of a real world, large-scale implementation, and directions for future research, are discussed.