S. Amon

The role of Triton surfactant in anisotropic etching of {1?1?0} reflective planes on (1?0?0) silicon

Etching characteristics and properties of {1 1 0} silicon crystal planes used as 45° optical mirrors for deflecting optical beams from/to optical fibers were investigated. Fiber aligning grooves and passive mirror-like planes were realized by wet micromachining of (1 0 0) silicon in KOH–IPA and TMAH–IPA systems. Implementation of Triton-x-100 surfactant as an additive to 25% TMAH in anisotropic etching of {1 1 0} silicon passive mirror planes is reported and discussed. It was found that Triton-x-100 contents in the range of 10–200 ppm to the 25% TMAH–water etchant significantly increase the anisotropy mostly by decreasing the {1 1 0} etch rate and retaining the {1 0 0} etch rate. It is also shown that {1 1 0} surface roughness is substantially improved compared to two other etching systems. Furthermore, efficient convex corner underetching reduction is demonstrated. The results of optical characterization of passive mirrors with 632 nm incident light show reduced scattering of reflected optical beam due to improved microroughness for mirrors made by TMAH–Triton. For the reflection of the optical beam with 1.33 µm and 1.54 µm wavelengths, sputtered layer of gold is used as reflective coating on silicon mirrors thus increasing the reflected optical beam intensity by an additional 8%.

Blumlein Configuration for High-Repetition-Rate Pulse Generation of Variable Duration and Polarity Using Synchronized Switch Control

Blumlein generators are used in different applications such as radars, lasers, and also recently in various biomedical studies, where the effects of high-voltage nanosecond pulses on biological cells are evaluated. In these studies, it was demonstrated that by applying high-voltage nanosecond pulses to cells, plasma membrane and cell organelles are permeabilized. As suggested in a recent publication, the repetition rate and polarity of nanosecond high-voltage pulses could have an important effect on the electropermeabilization process, and consequently, on the observed phenomena. Therefore, we designed a new Blumlein configuration that enables a higher repetition rate of variable duration of either bipolar or unipolar high-voltage pulses. We achieved a maximal pulse repetition rate of 1.1 MHz. However, theoretically, this rate could be even higher. We labeled endocytotic vesicles with lucifer yellow and added propidium iodide to a cell suspension for testing the cell plasma membrane integrity, so we were able to observe the permeabilization of endocytotic vesicles and the cell plasma membrane at the same time. The new design of pulse generator was built, verified, and also tested in experiments. The resulting flexibility and variability allow further in vitro experiments to determine the importance of the pulse repetition rate and pulse polarity on membrane permeabilization - both of the cell plasma membrane as well as of cell organelle membranes.

Approximation of the carrier generation rate in illuminated silicon

Abstract In order to shorten the calculation time for solar cell properties, the light generation rate usually expressed as a sum of individual contributions over the whole solar spectrum is replaced by a curve-fitted approximation. This approximation is represented by a series of three to five exponential terms resulting in an analytical solution of the continuity equation which has the same form as for the actual generation rate. Using the proposed approximation the calculated contribution of the base region to the short-circuit current fits closely the result obtained with the actual generation rate.

Experimental study of heat-treated thin film Ti/Pt heater and temperature sensor properties on a Si microfluidic platform

Design, fabrication and characterization of thin film Ti/Pt heaters and integrated temperature sensors on a Si microfluidic platform are presented. Ti/Pt heaters and sensors provide controlled heating of microchannels realized on the opposite side of the Si platform. Ti/Pt heaters and sensors were fabricated simultaneously by a dc sputtering method and a lift-off process. Thermal annealing of deposited Ti/Pt layers in the temperature range of 300?700 ?C was investigated revealing a strong impact on the Ti/Pt resistivity and, consequently, on the final resistance of fabricated heaters and sensors. Furthermore, it was determined that the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) for Ti/Pt temperature sensors and the heater increased with the annealing temperature. Microstructural analysis of deposited and annealed Ti/Pt layers carried out by AES and AFM revealed that recrystallization followed by a grain growth process of heat-treated Ti/Pt layers started at around 500 ?C and correlated well with the behavior of electrical properties, but not with the TCR behavior of annealed layers. To reduce the heat losses of the heated Si platform, the heater and temperature sensors were covered hermetically by anodically bonded Pyrex glass with a prefabricated insulating cavity. According to this approach the power consumption was reduced by more than 25% due to the improved thermal insulation. Additional insulation steps implemented during thermal characterization of the assembled microfluidic platform further reduced the power consumption, but also increased the time response of the microfluidic reactor.

Different aspect ratio pyramidal tips obtained by wet etching of (100) and (111) silicon

Different approaches to obtain sharp silicon tips with a variety of aspect ratios, for potential use in advanced microelectronics applications, were studied. Tips suited for atomic force microscopy and field emission arrays were formed by wet chemical etching of (100) and (111) single crystal silicon in KOH, TMAH and HNA etchant. Apex sharpening with thermal oxidising step resulted in tips with apex radius below 20 nm as evaluated by SEM analysis. The fabrication of silicon tips with isotropic etching on either (100) or (111) silicon confirmed that uniformity across the wafer and tip sharpness are lower with respect to anisotropically etched structures. Pyramidal tips with aspect ratios between 0.5 and 1.2 were obtained by these methods.

A new analytical model for determination of breakdown voltage of Resurf structures

Abstract The paper presents an analytical model for determination of the basic breakdown properties of Resurf structures. The model is based on separate determination of lateral and vertical diode breakdown voltages constituting the Resurf structure, by taking into account the vertical diode modulation effect on the lateral depletion layer spreading, i.e. the two-dimensional effects of the Resurf structure. The obtained results are well in agreement with those from the literature as well as from numerical modeling with the MEDICI device simulation program. The derived analytical model enables sensitivity analysis of three basic design parameters (substrate and epitaxial layer doping concentrations and epitaxial layer thickness) and drift region length on the breakdown voltage of the Resurf structures. The derived model offers several extensions for analysis of breakdown properties of various Resurf structures.

Morphological study of {311} crystal planes anisotropically etched in (100) silicon: role of etchants and etching parameters

Investigation was focused on the formation of {311} planes by wet anisotropic etching of (100) silicon and, in particular, on the characterization by means of surface roughness, etch rates and related convex and concave corner dynamic behaviour during maskless etching. KOH and TMAH water solutions were tested for their influence on previously mentioned parameters as well as the effect of isopropyl alcohol (IPA). It was found that convex corner undercutting is significantly reduced if {311} bounding planes are utilized instead of {111} bounding planes. For shallow structures a self-compensation can be obtained with KOH and when certain conditions are met, also with TMAH. The rounding of the concave corner that arises through prolonged etching is reported, which is particularly emphasized in KOH and less in TMAH etchant. Addition of IPA in maskless mode is experimentally investigated, showing minor influence on etching conditions and on reducing the undercut of convex corners. Etch rates and dimensional control of some microstructures are discussed and presented comparatively for different etching systems in a temperature range of 50-100 °C. By evaluation of surface quality with a surface profiler and SEM, it was found that the smoothest surface was achieved by etching in TMAH. The role of solution temperature in surface roughness was found to be of minor importance, as well as the stirring of the solution. It was determined that the IPA additive increases roughness when used with KOH, while with TMAH, the influence on roughness of the {311} planes is insignificant.

Study of low-temperature direct bonding of (111) and (100) silicon wafers under various ambient and surface conditions

Wafer bonding of commercially available (100) and (111) silicon wafers was performed in the range of temperatures from 80°C to 400°C in nitrogen, oxygen and low-vacuum atmosphere. Surface preparation with modified RCA cleaning method and hot nitric acid provided extremely clean and hydrophilic surfaces that were later brought into intimate contact. Various combinations of surface terminations such as thin chemical native silicon dioxide and thick thermal silicon dioxide on (111)- and (100)-oriented silicon wafers were prepared and investigated. Bonding quality evaluated by the tensile strength measurements showed the highest values obtained for strengthening in nitrogen atmosphere, reaching 12 MPa. Correlation between prebonding treatment, initial surface roughness and microroughness was made revealing the influence on the bonding energy. Interface imperfections of bonded samples were investigated by infrared transmission imaging revealing bubbles at the bonded interface only in case when bonding was performed in oxygen ambient. Thickness of the chemical native oxide after surface preparation step necessary for good bonding was found to be at least 0.8 nm. Wafers in the (111) orientation exhibited higher bonding abilities compared to (100) in case of bonding wafers with native oxides. This is believed to be due to higher density of available bonding sites as a consequence of enhanced chemical oxide growth rate and its homogeneity on (111) surface. Moreover, it is believed that due to higher positive charge of oxides grown on (111)-oriented silicon compared to (100), desorption of interfacial water is accelerated thus increasing the bonding energy at lower temperature. In conclusion, the best bonding results were obtained by bonding wafers with thick thermal oxide to (111) wafers with native oxide and annealed in nitrogen ambient.

Effective roughness reduction of {100} and {311} planes in anisotropic etching of {100} silicon in 5% TMAH

We have performed an investigation to study the nature of surface roughness on {100} and {311} planes obtained by wet anisotropic etching of {100} silicon in 5% tetramethyl ammoniumhydroxide (TMAH) etchant. The surface roughness, which is in most cases a consequence of hillock formation at low concentrations of TMAH, was studied as a function of etch temperature, re-etch time, stirring conditions and the addition of small amounts of ammonium peroxodisulfate (AP). A short re-etching step performed in 25% TMAH or 5% TMAH+AP was found to decrease the total roughness obtained after the prolonged etching in 5% TMAH. We have found that smooth {311} planes without hillocks can be obtained by etching in 5% TMAH with the addition of only 0.25% of AP. Due to the decomposition of AP in the etching process as determined by increased surface roughness, a replenishing of the additive is proposed. Experimental results have shown an increased surface roughness and reduced etch rates of the {100} and {311} planes by increasing the agitation of the 5% TMAH etch solution.

Dielectrophoretic Field-Flow Microchamber for Separation of Biological Cells Based on Their Electrical Properties

We describe the development, fabrication and testing of a microfluidic chamber for dielectrophoretic field-flow separation of biological cells based on their electrical properties. The chamber was constructed from a single Pyrex wafer with interdigitated Au electrodes, a spacer, and a top cover glass, making the events in the chamber observable under most optical microscopes. The dimensions were optimized based on numerical computations of the electric field, its gradient and the fluid-flow velocity profile. The electrodes were fabricated using photolithography. A double-sided self-adhesive tape of 100 μm thickness was used as a spacer, with an opening of 80 mm length and 20 mm width cut in its middle to form a channel of 100 μm height, and with water-resistant acrylic glue of the tape holding the glass plates together and providing a tight seal. The glue loses its adhesive properties above 70°C, allowing for easy disassembly of the chamber in hot water and its thorough cleaning. A 1:1 mixture of normal and 50°C -heat-treated CHO cells was used to test the chamber. A 93% efficiency of separation was obtained, confirming the usefulness of the chamber in separating cells with sufficient differences in electrical properties of their membranes.