S.E. la Fleur

A Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Generated Rhythm In Basal Glucose Concentrations

The daily rhythm in feeding activity in mammals, as driven by the biological clock, largely determines the daily fluctuations in basal concentrations of glucose and insulin. To investigate a possible direct impact of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) on these parameters, we subjected intact rats and SCN‐lesioned rats to a fasting regimen of 36 h, or to a scheduled feeding regimen of six identical meals equally distributed over the light:dark‐cycle. Plasma profiles of glucose and insulin in rats during the final 24 h of the 36 h of fasting, and in rats subjected to the scheduled feeding regimen were compared to profiles in rats fed ad libitum. In rats fed ad libitum, in fasted rats and in rats subjected to a scheduled feeding regimen basal glucose concentrations showed a pronounced 24‐h rhythm that was not found in rats that had been SCN‐lesioned. Basal insulin levels showed a 24‐h rhythm in 50% of the rats fed ad libitum and in 50% of the rats subjected to a scheduled feeding regimen; neither rhythms were present in SCN‐lesioned rats. However, none of the fasted rats showed a 24‐h rhythm in basal insulin concentrations. These data provide clear evidence that the SCN directly controls basal glucose concentrations independent of its influence on feeding activity. At the same time, we found no consistent evidence for a strong impact of the SCN on basal insulin concentrations.

Effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 on appetite and body weight: focus on the CNS

The delivery of nutrients to the gastrointestinal tract after food ingestion activates the secretion of several gut-derived mediators, including the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA), such as exenatide and liraglutide, are currently employed successfully in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. GLP-1RA improve glycaemic control and stimulate satiety, leading to reductions in food intake and body weight. Besides gastric distension and peripheral vagal nerve activation, GLP-1RA induce satiety by influencing brain regions involved in the regulation of feeding, and several routes of action have been proposed. This review summarises the evidence for a physiological role of GLP-1 in the central regulation of feeding behaviour and the different routes of action involved. Also, we provide an overview of presently available data on pharmacological stimulation of GLP-1 pathways leading to alterations in CNS activity, reductions in food intake and weight loss.

Hypothalamic control of energy metabolism via the autonomic nervous system

The hypothalamic control of hepatic glucose production is an evident aspect of energy homeostasis. In addition to the control of glucose metabolism by the circadian timing system, the hypothalamus also serves as a key relay center for (humoral) feedback information from the periphery, with the important role for hypothalamic leptin receptors as a striking example. The hypothalamic biological clock uses its projections to the preautonomic hypothalamic neurons to control the daily rhythms in plasma glucose concentration, glucose uptake, and insulin sensitivity. Euglycemic, hyperinsulinemic clamp experiments combined with either sympathetic‐, parasympathetic‐, or sham‐denervations of the autonomic input to the liver have further delineated the hypothalamic pathways that mediate the control of the circadian timing system over glucose metabolism. In addition, these experiments clearly showed both that next to the biological clock peripheral hormones may “use” the preautonomic neurons in the hypothalamus to affect hepatic glucose metabolism, and that similar pathways may be involved in the control of lipid metabolism in liver and white adipose tissue.

Role for the Pineal and Melatonin in Glucose Homeostasis: Pinealectomy Increases Night-Time Glucose Concentrations

The effects of melatonin on glucose metabolism are far from understood. In rats, the biological clock generates a 24‐h rhythm in plasma glucose concentrations, with declining concentrations in the dark period. We hypothesized that, in the rat, melatonin enhances the dark signal of the biological clock, decreasing glucose concentrations in the dark period. We measured 24‐h rhythms of plasma concentrations of glucose and insulin in pinealectomized rats fed ad libitum and subjected to a scheduled feeding regimen with six meals equally distributed over the light/dark cycle and compared them with previous data of intact rats. Pinealectomy dampened the amplitude of the 24‐h rhythm in plasma glucose concentrations in rats fed ad libitum, and abolished it completely in rats subjected to the scheduled feeding regimen, while plasma insulin concentrations did not change under both conditions. Pinealectomy abolished the nocturnal decline in plasma glucose concentrations irrespective of whether rats were fed ad libitum or subjected to the scheduled feeding regimen. Melatonin replacement restored 24‐h mean plasma glucose concentrations in pinealectomized rats that were subjected to the scheduled feeding regimen but, interestingly, it did not restore the 24‐h rhythm. Melatonin treatment also resulted in higher meal‐induced insulin responses, probably mediated via an increased sensitivity of the β‐cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the pineal hormone, melatonin, influences both glucose metabolism and insulin secretion from the pancreatic β‐cell. The present study also demonstrates that removal of the pineal gland cannot be compensated by mimicking plasma melatonin concentrations only.

A free-choice high-fat high-sugar diet induces changes in arcuate neuropeptide expression that support hyperphagia

Objectives:The mechanisms for how saturated fat and sugar-based beverages contribute to human obesity are poorly understood. This paper describes a series of experiments developed to examine the response of hypothalamic neuropeptides to diets rich in sugar and fat, using three different diets: a high-fat high-sugar (HFHS) choice diet with access to chow, saturated fat and a 30% sugar solution; a high-fat (HF) choice diet with access to chow and saturated fat; or to a high-sugar (HS) choice diet with access to chow and a sugar solution.Method:We first studied caloric intake, body weight gain, hormonal alterations and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression when male Wistar rats were subjected to an HFHS choice, an HF choice or an HS choice diet for 1 week. Next, we studied caloric intake and body weight gain when rats were subjected to the choice diets for 5 weeks. Finally, we measured neuropeptide expression in hepatic vagotomized rats subjected to an HFHS choice, an HF choice or an HS choice diet for 1 week.Results:In rats on an HF choice diet, plasma leptin concentrations and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA increased and neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA decreased. Rats on an HFHS choice diet showed identical plasma leptin concentrations as rats on an HF choice diet. However, NPY mRNA increased and POMC mRNA decreased. An HS choice diet for 1 week did not alter hypothalamic neuropeptide expression or plasma leptin concentrations. As hormonal changes did not explain the differences in hypothalamic neuropeptide expression between rats on the choice diets, we addressed whether neuronal feedback signals mediated the hypothalamic neuropeptide response. The POMC mRNA response to different diets depended on an intact innervation of liver and upper intestinal tract.Conclusion:Our data suggest that the specific combination of saturated fat and a 30% sugar solution results in hyperphagia-induced obesity and alters hypothalamic neuropeptide expression, and that the response of the melanocortin system is mediated by the hepatic vagus.

The diurnal modulation of hormonal responses in the rat varies with different stimuli

The circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus not only controls the basal daily temporal organization of many neuroendocrine functions, but also its responsiveness. We studied the time‐of‐day influence on plasma changes in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), corticosterone, glucagon and leptin concentrations elicited by an insulin‐induced hypoglycaemic event. Male Wistar rats were exposed to an insulin challenge at six different times during the light/dark cycle. The time‐of‐day of exposure markedly affected the responses of all four hormones studied. Generally, the magnitude of the different hormone responses correlated with their basal daily release pattern (i.e. the responses of ACTH and corticosterone were largest around lights off, and glucagon and leptin responses were most pronounced during the dark period). With regard to the hormones of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis, the presently reported time‐of‐day dependent modulation is completely opposite to that previously reported for novelty or restraint. Therefore, these findings provide further support for the existence of at least two different neural pathways that are able to activate the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis, and provide different substrates for modulation by the biological clock. This observation warrants a thorough examination of possible functional explanations for the observed differences.

The snacking rat as model of human obesity: effects of a free-choice high-fat high-sugar diet on meal patterns

Objectives:Rats subjected to a free-choice high-fat high-sugar (fcHFHS) diet persistently overeat, exhibit increased food-motivated behavior and become overtly obese. Conversely, several studies using a non-choice (nc) high-energy diet showed only an initial increase in food intake with unaltered or reduced food-motivated behavior. This raises the question of the importance of choice in the persistence of hyperphagia in rats on a fcHFHS diet.Subjects:Meal patterns, food intake and body weight gain were studied in male Wistar rats on free-choice diets with fat and/or sugar and in rats on nc diets with fat and sugar (custom made with ingredients similar to the fcHFHS diet).Results:Rats on a ncHFHS diet initially overconsumed, but reduced intake thereafter, whereas rats on a fcHFHS diet remained hyperphagic. Because half of the sugar intake in the fcHFHS group occurred during the inactive period, we next determined whether sugar intake during the light phase was a necessary requirement for hyperphagia, by restricting access to liquid sugar to either the light or dark period with unlimited access to fat and chow. Results showed that hyperphagia occurred irrespective of the timing of sugar intake. Meal pattern analysis revealed consumption of larger but fewer meals in the ncHFHS group, as well as the fcHF group. Interestingly, meal number was increased in all rats drinking liquid sugar (whether on a fcHFHS or a fcHS diet), whereas a compensatory decrease in meal size was only observed in the fcHS group, but not the fcHFHS group.Conclusion:We hereby show the importance of choice in the observation of fcHFHS diet-induced hyperphagia, which results in increases in meal number due to sugar drinking without any compensatory decrease in meal size. We thus provide a novel dietary model in rats that mimics important features of human overconsumption that have been ignored in rodent models of obesity.

A free-choice high-fat high-sugar diet induces glucose intolerance and insulin unresponsiveness to a glucose load not explained by obesity

Objectives:In diet-induced obesity, it is not clear whether impaired glucose metabolism is caused directly by the diet, or indirectly via obesity. This study examined the effects of different free-choice, high-caloric, obesity-inducing diets on glucose metabolism. In these free-choice diets, saturated fat and/or a 30% sugar solution are provided in an addition to normal chow pellets.Method:In the first experiment, male rats received a free-choice high-fat high-sugar (HFHS), free-choice high-fat (HF) or a chow diet. In a second experiment, male rats received a free-choice high-sugar (HS) diet or chow diet. For both experiments, after weeks 1 and 4, an intravenous glucose tolerance test was performed.Results:Both the HFHS and HF diets resulted in obesity with comparable plasma concentrations of free fatty acids. Interestingly, the HF diet did not affect glucose metabolism, whereas the HFHS diet resulted in hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia and in glucose intolerance because of a diminished insulin response. Moreover, adiposity in rats on the HF diet correlated positively with the insulin response to the glucose load, whereas adiposity in rats on the HFHS diet showed a negative correlation. In addition, total caloric intake did not explain differences in glucose tolerance. To test whether sugar itself was crucial, we next performed a similar experiment in rats on the HS diet. Rats consumed three times as much sugar when compared with rats on the HFHS diet, which resulted in obesity with basal hyperinsulinemia. Glucose tolerance, however, was not affected.Conclusion:Together, these results suggest that not only obesity or total caloric intake, but the diet content also is crucial for the glucose intolerance that we observed in rats on the HFHS diet.

High fat/carbohydrate ratio but not total energy intake induces lower striatal dopamine D2/3 receptor availability in diet-induced obesity.

High-energy diets that induce obesity decrease striatal dopamine D2/3 receptor (DRD2/3) availability. It is however poorly understood which components of these diets are underlying this decrease. This study assessed the role of saturated fat intake on striatal DRD2/3 availability. Forty rats were randomized to a free-choice high-fat high-sugar diet (HFHS) or a standard chow diet for 28 days. Striatal DRD2/3 availability was measured using 123I-IBZM storage phosphor imaging at day 29. The HFHS group was split in a HFHS-high-fat (HFHS-hf) and HFHS-low-fat (HFHS-lf) group based on the percentage energy intake from fat. Rats of both HFHS subgroups had increased energy intake, abdominal fat stores and plasma leptin levels compared with controls. DRD2/3 availability in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) was significantly lower in HFHS-hf than in HFHS-lf rats, whereas it was similar for HFHS-lf and control rats. Furthermore, DRD2/3 availability in the NAcc was positively correlated with the percentage energy intake from sugar. Total energy intake was lower for HFHS-hf than for HFHS-lf rats. Together these results suggest that a diet with a high fat/carbohydrate ratio, but not total energy intake or the level of adiposity, is the best explanation for the decrease in striatal DRD2/3 availability observed in diet-induced obesity.

Melanocortin receptor-mediated effects on obesity are distributed over specific hypothalamic regions

Objective:Reduction of melanocortin signaling in the brain results in obesity. However, where in the brain reduced melanocortin signaling mediates this effect is poorly understood.Design:We determined the effects of long-term inhibition of melanocortin receptor activity in specific brain regions of the rat brain. Melanocortin signaling was inhibited by injection of a recombinant adeno-associated viral (rAAV) vector that overexpressed Agouti-related peptide (AgRP) into the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the lateral hypothalamus (LH) or the accumbens shell (Acc).Results:Overexpression of AgRP in the rat PVN, VMH or LH increased bodyweight, the percentage of white adipose tissue, plasma leptin and insulin concentrations and food intake. Food intake was mainly increased because of an increase in meal size in the light and dark phases, after overexpression of AgRP in the PVN, LH or VMH. Overexpression of AgRP in the PVN or VMH reduced average body core temperature in the dark on day 40 post injection, whereas AgRP overexpression in the LH did not affect temperature. In addition, overexpression of AgRP in the PVN, LH or VMH did not significantly alter mRNA expression of AgRP, neuropeptide Y (NPY), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) or suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) in the arcuate. Overexpression of AgRP in the Acc did not have any effect on the measured parameters.Conclusions:Reduction of melanocortin signaling in several hypothalamic regions increased meal size. However, there were brain area-specific effects on other parameters such as core temperature and plasma leptin concentrations. In a previous study, where NPY was overexpressed with an rAAV vector in the PVN and LH, meal frequency and meal size were increased respectively, whereas locomotor activity was reduced by NPY overexpression at both nuclei. Taken together, AgRP and NPY have complementary roles in energy balance.