Sabine Glock

Warning labels formulated as questions positively influence smoking-related risk perception

Research on warning labels printed on cigarette packages has shown that fear inducing health warnings might provoke defensive responses. This study investigated whether reformulating statements into questions could avoid defensive reactions. Smokers were presented with either warning labels formulated as questions, textual warning labels, graphic warning labels, or no warning labels. Participants’ smoking-related risk perception was higher after exposure to warning labels formulated as questions or no warning labels than after exposure to textual or graphic warning labels. These results indicate that reformulating statements into questions can avoid defensive responses elicited by textual- and graphic warning labels.

Effects of and Attention to Graphic Warning Labels on Cigarette Packages

Objective: The present study investigates the effects of graphic cigarette warnings compared to text-only cigarette warnings on smokers’ explicit (i.e. ratings of the packages, cognitions about smoking, perceived health risk, quit intentions) and implicit attitudes. In addition, participants’ visual attention towards the graphic warnings was recorded using eye-tracking methodology.Design and methods: Sixty-three smokers participated in the present study and either viewed graphic cigarette warnings with aversive and non-aversive images or text-only warnings. Data were analysed using analysis of variance and correlation analysis.Results: Especially, graphic cigarette warnings with aversive content drew attention and elicited high threat. However, whereas attention directed to the textual information of the graphic warnings predicted smokers’ risk perceptions, attention directed to the images of the graphic warnings did not. Moreover, smokers’ in the graphic warning condition reported more positive cognitions about smoking, thus revealing cognitive dissonance.Conclusion: Smokers employ defensive psychological mechanisms when confronted with threatening warnings. Although aversive images attract attention, they do not promote health knowledge. Implications for graphic health warnings and the importance of taking their content (i.e. aversive vs. non-aversive images) into account are discussed.

Escaping in digital games: The relationship between playing motives and addictive tendencies in males

Problematic playing behaviour in terms of addiction is well known to be associated with specific traits (e.g., self-esteem) and weak social settings (e.g., negative relationships). What remains unclear is the impact of playing motives on addictive tendencies. We investigated how playing motives were related to problematic playing behaviour. Using ratings indicating explicit motives and response latencies indicating the activation of implicit motives, we investigated Yees (2006) three main playing motives: social interaction, achievement, and immersion. All three implicit motives were found to be highly activated among problematic players while only explicit immersion was judged as less important by non-problematic and excessive players. In addition, implicit immersion together with explicit immersion and playing hours were found to be strong predictors for problematic playing behaviour. We discuss motives, especially immersion, as possible risk factors for addictive tendencies when motives become internalised and therefore automatically activated by thoughts about digital games.

Prädiktoren der Sekundarschulempfehlung in Luxemburg: Ergebnisse einer Large-Scale-Untersuchung

ZusammenfassungMit dieser Studie wurde anhand einer Stichprobe von 2925 Schülern aus luxemburgischen Grundschulen geprüft, inwieweit die Leistungen von Schülern luxemburgischer Grundschulen und Merkmale ihres sozialen Hintergrundes Eingang finden in die Sekundarschulempfehlungen, die am Ende ihrer Grundschulzeit ausgesprochen wurden. Zur Analyse des Gewichts unterschiedlicher Prädiktoren für die Sekundarschulempfehlung wurde ein Zweiebenenmodell der logistischen Regression verwendet. Im Wesentlichen ergaben sich folgende Befunde: Schulnoten und Ergebnisse aus standardisierten Schulleistungstests stellten die stärksten Prädiktoren für die Sekundarschulempfehlung dar. Nach den individuellen Schülerleistungen war der Elternwunsch der stärkste Prädiktor für die Sekundarschulempfehlung. Darüber hinaus hingen sowohl die Nationalität als auch der sozioökonomische Status der Schüler mit der Sekundarschulempfehlung zusammen. Selbst bei Kontrolle ihrer schulischen Leistungen erhielten Schüler mit Migrationshintergrund seltener eine Empfehlung für den höchsten Schulzweig als Schüler ohne Migrationshintergrund. Ein hohes Klassenleistungsniveau führte bei Kontrolle der individuellen Leistungen seltener zu Empfehlungen für den höchsten Schulzweig als ein niedriges Klassenleistungsniveau.AbstractThis study used a sample of 2925 primary school students in Luxembourg to test the extent to which students’ performance and their social background influence the recommendations for secondary school type that are made at the end of primary schooling. A two-level model of logistic regression was used in order to analyse the importance of various predictors. The main findings were as follows: School marks and the results from standardized testing were the strongest predictors for a secondary school recommendation. After individual student performance, the strongest predictors were parental wishes. Further factors related to the school recommendation were nationality and socio-economic status. Even after controlling for student performance, students with migration background received a recommendation for academic-track secondary schooling less often than students without. A high performance class leads, after controlling for individual performance, less often to a recommendation for academic track secondary schooling than a low performance class.

Prädiktoren der Sekundarschulempfehlung in Luxemburg

ZusammenfassungMit dieser Studie wurde anhand einer Stichprobe von 2925 Schülern aus luxemburgischen Grundschulen geprüft, inwieweit die Leistungen von Schülern luxemburgischer Grundschulen und Merkmale ihres sozialen Hintergrundes Eingang finden in die Sekundarschulempfehlungen, die am Ende ihrer Grundschulzeit ausgesprochen wurden. Zur Analyse des Gewichts unterschiedlicher Prädiktoren für die Sekundarschulempfehlung wurde ein Zweiebenenmodell der logistischen Regression verwendet. Im Wesentlichen ergaben sich folgende Befunde: Schulnoten und Ergebnisse aus standardisierten Schulleistungstests stellten die stärksten Prädiktoren für die Sekundarschulempfehlung dar. Nach den individuellen Schülerleistungen war der Elternwunsch der stärkste Prädiktor für die Sekundarschulempfehlung. Darüber hinaus hingen sowohl die Nationalität als auch der sozioökonomische Status der Schüler mit der Sekundarschulempfehlung zusammen. Selbst bei Kontrolle ihrer schulischen Leistungen erhielten Schüler mit Migrationshintergrund seltener eine Empfehlung für den höchsten Schulzweig als Schüler ohne Migrationshintergrund. Ein hohes Klassenleistungsniveau führte bei Kontrolle der individuellen Leistungen seltener zu Empfehlungen für den höchsten Schulzweig als ein niedriges Klassenleistungsniveau.AbstractThis study used a sample of 2925 primary school students in Luxembourg to test the extent to which students’ performance and their social background influence the recommendations for secondary school type that are made at the end of primary schooling. A two-level model of logistic regression was used in order to analyse the importance of various predictors. The main findings were as follows: School marks and the results from standardized testing were the strongest predictors for a secondary school recommendation. After individual student performance, the strongest predictors were parental wishes. Further factors related to the school recommendation were nationality and socio-economic status. Even after controlling for student performance, students with migration background received a recommendation for academic-track secondary schooling less often than students without. A high performance class leads, after controlling for individual performance, less often to a recommendation for academic track secondary schooling than a low performance class.

Gifted and Maladjusted? Implicit Attitudes and Automatic Associations Related to Gifted Children

The disharmony hypothesis (DH) states that high intelligence comes at a cost to the gifted, resulting in adjustment problems. We investigated whether there is a gifted stereotype that falls in line with the DH and affects attitudes toward gifted students. Preservice teachers (N = 182) worked on single-target association tests and affective priming tasks. High intelligence was more strongly associated with gifted than with average-ability students. Adjustment problems were more strongly associated with gifted than with average-ability students for males only. Attitudes toward gifted students were neutral when no component of the DH was activated but were negative toward gifted males when adjustment difficulties were activated. Implicit associations and attitudes were in line with the DH—but only for male students.

Defending the Doomed: Implicit Strategies concerning Protection of First Person Shooter Games

Censorship of violent digital games, especially first-person shooter (FPS) games, is broadly discussed between generations. While older people are concerned about possible negative influences of these games, not only players but also nonplayers of the younger net-generation seem to deny any association with real aggressive behavior. Our study aimed at investigating defense mechanisms players and nonplayers use to defend FPS and peers with playing habits. By using a lexical decision task, we found that aggressive concepts are activated by priming the content of FPS but suppressed afterward. Only if participants were instructed to actively suppress aggressive concepts after priming, thought suppression was no longer necessary. Young people still do have negative associations with violent video games. These associations are neglected by implicitly applying defense strategies--independent of own playing habits--to protect this specific hobby, which is common for the net-generation.

Smoking-related warning messages formulated as questions positively influence short-term smoking behaviour

Research demonstrated that by reformulating smoking warnings into questions, defensive responses in smokers are reduced and smoking-related risk perception increases. We explored whether these positive outcomes can be generalised to actual behaviour. Participants saw either a movie presenting subheadings with smoking-related questions or statements. Afterwards, the time was measured until participants lit their first cigarette. Smokers who were presented with questions about the harms of smoking waited longer before lighting up a cigarette than smokers who were presented with statements. Presenting questions instead of the statements seems to be an effective means to prolonging smokers’ abstinence.

Implicit associations and compensatory health beliefs in smokers: Exploring their role for behaviour and their change through warning labels

OBJECTIVES Smokers might think that the negative effects of smoking can be compensated for by other behaviours, such as doing exercise or eating healthily. This phenomenon is known as compensatory health beliefs (CHBs). Graphic warning labels on cigarette packets emphasize the negative effects of smoking, which may impact CHBs. Research so far has assessed CHBs explicitly only via questionnaires, although implicit cognition might be an important factor in continuing to smoke. This study investigated the impact of graphic warning labels on CHBs, by testing CHBs both implicitly and explicitly. DESIGN The study had a three-group experimental design. ANOVAs and multiple regression analyses were run on the results. METHODS We assessed explicit CHBs among non-smokers, smokers, and smokers confronted with graphic warning labels (N = 107; 47 females, 23.89 years old, 78 daily smokers). Implicit associations between smoking and CHB-specific behaviours (e.g., eating healthy food) were measured using a Single-Target Implicit Association Test. After the experiment, participants were able to choose between a healthy and unhealthy food reward. RESULTS Non-smokers and smokers differed in explicit CHBs but not in implicit cognitions. Warning labels influenced implicit associations among smokers but did not affect explicit CHBs. Most interestingly, implicit associations and explicit CHBs predicted food choice and smoking among smokers not confronted with warning labels. CONCLUSIONS Graphic warning labels could be used in interventions to inhibit automatic associations between smoking and healthy behaviours. Unlearning implicit cognitions might in turn affect explicit CHBs, thus decreasing their role in reducing the negative feelings caused by smoking.

Are digital games perceived as fun or danger? Supporting and suppressing different game-related concepts.

Violent digital game play has repeatedly been discussed to be strongly related to aggression and emotional instability. Thus, digital game players have to defend against these prejudices through emphasizing positive game-related concepts such as achievement, social interaction, and immersion. We experimentally investigated which positive- and negative-concept players and nonplayers activate when being primed with digital games. Participants were either exposed to violent or nonviolent game content and were required to work on a lexical decision task. Results showed that response latencies for the concept aggression and emotional instability were faster than for neutral concepts (not associated with digital games), but slower than for the positive concepts sociality and competition. Both players and nonplayers felt the need to defend against prejudices and emphasized positive concepts. Neither their own gaming experience nor the game content influenced the results. Being a part of the net generation is sufficient to suppress negative game-related concepts and to support positive game-related concepts to protect digital games as common leisure activity among peers.