Sarp Satir

Single-chip CMUT-on-CMOS front-end system for real-time volumetric IVUS and ICE imaging

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and intracardiac echography (ICE) catheters with real-time volumetric ultrasound imaging capability can provide unique benefits to many interventional procedures used in the diagnosis and treatment of coronary and structural heart diseases. Integration of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) arrays with front-end electronics in single-chip configuration allows for implementation of such catheter probes with reduced interconnect complexity, miniaturization, and high mechanical flexibility. We implemented a single-chip forward-looking (FL) ultrasound imaging system by fabricating a 1.4-mm-diameter dual-ring CMUT array using CMUT-on-CMOS technology on a front-end IC implemented in 0.35-μm CMOS process. The dual-ring array has 56 transmit elements and 48 receive elements on two separate concentric annular rings. The IC incorporates a 25-V pulser for each transmitter and a low-noise capacitive transimpedance amplifier (TIA) for each receiver, along with digital control and smart power management. The final shape of the silicon chip is a 1.5-mm-diameter donut with a 430-μm center hole for a guide wire. The overall front-end system requires only 13 external connections and provides 4 parallel RF outputs while consuming an average power of 20 mW. We measured RF A-scans from the integrated single- chip array which show full functionality at 20.1 MHz with 43% fractional bandwidth. We also tested and demonstrated the image quality of the system on a wire phantom and an ex vivo chicken heart sample. The measured axial and lateral point resolutions are 92 μm and 251 μm, respectively. We successfully acquired volumetric imaging data from the ex vivo chicken heart at 60 frames per second without any signal averaging. These demonstrative results indicate that single-chip CMUT-on-CMOS systems have the potential to produce realtime volumetric images with image quality and speed suitable for catheter-based clinical applications.

Harmonic reduction in capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers by gap feedback linearization

The nonlinear relationship between the electrical input signal and electrostatic force acting on the capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) membrane limits its harmonic imaging performance. Several input shaping methods were proposed to compensate for the nonlinearity originating from the electrostatic forces dependence on the square of the applied voltage. Here, we analyze harmonic generation in CMUTs with a time-domain model. The model explains the basis of the input shaping methods and suggests that the nonlinearity resulting from gap dependence of the electrostatic force is also significant. It also suggests that the harmonic distortion in the output pressure can be eliminated by subharmonic ac-only excitation of the CMUT in addition to scaling the input voltage with the instantaneous gap. This gap feedback configuration can be approximated by the simple addition of a series impedance to the CMUT capacitance. We analyze several types of series impedance feedback topologies for gap feedback linearization. We show that for subharmonic ac excitation, although resistive and capacitive impedances result in a trade-off between input voltage and harmonic distortion for a desired pressure output, harmonic generation can be suppressed while increasing the Pa/V transmit sensitivity for proper series inductance and resistance feedback. We experimentally demonstrate the feedback method by reducing harmonic generation by 10 dB for the same output pressure at the fundamental frequency by using a simple series resistor feedback with a CMUT operating at a center frequency of 3 MHz. The proposed methods also allow for utilization of the full CMUT gap for transmit operation and, hence, should be useful in high-intensity ultrasonic applications in addition to harmonic imaging.

Monolithic CMUT-on-CMOS integration for intravascular ultrasound applications

One of the most important promises of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) technology is integration with electronics. This approach is required to minimize the parasitic capacitances in the receive mode, especially in catheter-based volumetric imaging arrays, for which the elements must be small. Furthermore, optimization of the available silicon area and minimized number of connections occurs when the CMUTs are fabricated directly above the associated electronics. Here, we describe successful fabrication and performance evaluation of CMUT arrays for intravascular imaging on custom-designed CMOS receiver electronics from a commercial IC foundry. The CMUT-on-CMOS process starts with surface isolation and mechanical planarization of the CMOS electronics to reduce topography. The rest of the CMUT fabrication is achieved by modifying a low-temperature micromachining process through the addition of a single mask and developing a dry etching step to produce sloped sidewalls for simple and reliable CMUT-to-CMOS interconnection. This CMUT-to-CMOS interconnect method reduced the parasitic capacitance by a factor of 200 when compared with a standard wire-bonding method. Characterization experiments indicate that the CMUT-on-CMOS elements are uniform in frequency response and are similar to CMUTs simultaneously fabricated on standard silicon wafers without electronics integration. Ex- periments on a 1.6-mm-diameter dual-ring CMUT array with a center frequency of 15 MHz show that both the CMUTs and the integrated CMOS electronics are fully functional. The SNR measurements indicate that the performance is adequate for imaging chronic total occlusions located 1 cm from the CMUT array.

A large-signal model for CMUT arrays with arbitrary membrane geometry operating in non-collapsed mode

A large-signal, transient model has been developed to predict the output characteristics of a CMUT array operated in the non-collapse mode. The model is based on separation of the nonlinear electrostatic voltage-to-force relation and the linear acoustic array response. For modeling of linear acoustic radiation and crosstalk effects, the boundary element method is used. The stiffness matrix in the vibroacoustics calculations is obtained using static finite element analysis of a single membrane which can have arbitrary geometry and boundary conditions. A lumped modeling approach is used to reduce the order of the system for modeling the transient nonlinear electrostatic actuation. To accurately capture the dynamics of the non-uniform electrostatic force distribution over the CMUT electrode during large deflections, the membrane electrode is divided into patches shaped to match higher order membrane modes, each introducing a variable to the system model. This reduced order nonlinear lumped model is solved in the time domain using commercial software. The model has two linear blocks to calculate the displacement profile of the electrode patches and the output pressure for a given force distribution over the array. The force-to-array-displacement block uses the linear acoustic model, and the Rayleigh integral is evaluated to calculate the pressure at any field point. Using the model, the time-domain transmitted pressure can be simulated for different large drive signal configurations. The acoustic model is verified by comparison to harmonic FEA in vacuum and fluid for high- and low-aspect-ratio membranes as well as mass-loaded membranes. The overall software model is verified by comparison to transient 3-D finite element analysis and experimental results for different large drive signals, and an example for a phased array simulation is given.

High frequency ultrasonic imaging using thermal mechanical noise recorded on capacitive micromachined transducer arrays

The cross-correlation of diffuse thermal-mechanical noise recorded by two sensors yields an estimate of the ultrasonic waves propagating between them. We used this approach at high frequencies (1-30 MHz) on a capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) ring array (d = 725 μm), monolithically integrated with low noise complementary metal oxide semiconductor electronics. The thermal-mechanical noise cross-correlations between the CMUT array elements in immersion reveal both evanescent surface waves (below 10 MHz) and waves propagating primarily in the fluid (above 10 MHz). These propagating waves may allow passive imaging of scatterers closer to the array as compared to conventional pulse-echo systems, providing potentially higher resolution.

CMUT-on-CMOS for forward-looking IVUS: Improved fabrication and real-time imaging

The capability to monolithically integrate CMUTs with underlying front-end electronics is promising for forward-looking (FL) imaging catheters with improved SNR and smaller size. We previously demonstrated feasibility of CMUT-on-CMOS arrays for FL imaging and obtained pulse-echo results from individual elements. Here we describe recent improvements in the fabrication process and initial results from a test setup capable of real-time image data collection using CMUT-on-CMOS arrays. Dual-ring CMUT arrays were fabricated on silicon wafers with 0.35 µm CMOS front-end electronics processed at a commercial foundry. The critical changes made in the fabrication process involved in-house polishing followed by a chemical stripping of the aluminum oxide slurry. We also added 0.2 µm of silicon nitride before CMUT to CMOS interconnect via etching. We made these modifications to improve surface quality, alleviating wirebonding stiction issues. The real-time imaging test setup uses an FPGA to control Tx/Rx element selection and data collection functions. The Tx electronics are capable of generating high voltage, broadband, bipolar pulses up to 100V in amplitude. The 4 Rx channels coming out of the CMUT-on-CMOS chip are simultaneously digitized using a 14 bit 250 MS/s digitizer. 12 MHz dual-ring CMUT-on-CMOS arrays were used for real-time imaging of various targets. The results show that these arrays, coupled with an FPGA controlled data acquisition system, can produce true volumetric images in front of the array in real time.

A tunable analog delay element for high-frequency dynamic beamforming

Implementing beamforming for high frequency arrays is challenging because of the accurate delay requirements at high frequencies. High frequency digital beamforming is not suitable for catheter based applications as a large number of cables is required between the array and the external beamformer. A possible solution is to perform analog beamforming on an integrated circuit adjacent or monolithically integrated to the imaging array. In this study, we introduce an improved voltage in voltage out low pass filter as an analog delay cell for high frequency dynamic beamformers. This circuit can generate three times more delay with a given bandwidth when compared to conventional low pass filters. Delay of the circuit is tunable and the gain of the cell is inherently very close to unity. The proposed delay cell operates single ended and therefore is more suitable for CMUT operation which generates single ended output. We designed a test beamformer for a 30MHz, equal area, annular array with 100% bandwidth using the proposed delay cell and the unit-delay focusing architecture. Required delays are implemented using a delay line made up of improved delay elements with tunable delays. To demonstrate functionality we designed and fabricated a custom front-end IC in a 0.5µm standard CMOS process. The IC chip consists of 8 transimpedance amplifiers, voltage-to-current converters, the analog dynamic beamformer, and two buffers. We present results of preliminary imaging experiments that demonstrate the focusing capability.

Ultrasound Imaging of Oxidative Stress In Vivo with Chemically-Generated Gas Microbubbles

Ultrasound contrast agents (UCAs) have tremendous potential for in vivo molecular imaging because of their high sensitivity. However, the diagnostic potential of UCAs has been difficult to exploit because current UCAs are based on pre-formed microbubbles, which can only detect cell surface receptors. Here, we demonstrate that chemical reactions that generate gas forming molecules can be used to perform molecular imaging by ultrasound in vivo. This new approach was demonstrated by imaging reactive oxygen species in vivo with allylhydrazine, a liquid compound that is converted into nitrogen and propylene gas after reacting with radical oxidants. We demonstrate that allylhydrazine encapsulated within liposomes can detect a 10 micromolar concentration of radical oxidants by ultrasound, and can image oxidative stress in mice, induced by lipopolysaccharide, using a clinical ultrasound system. We anticipate numerous applications of chemically-generated microbubbles for molecular imaging by ultrasound, given ultrasound’s ability to detect small increments above the gas saturation limit, its spatial resolution and widespread clinical use.

Bias optimization of dual ring CMUT arrays for forward looking IVUS applications

Dual-ring annular CMUT arrays for FL-IVUS which enable independent optimization of transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) functionalities have been described previously. In this work, we have investigated optimal DC biasing schemes for Tx and Rx elements of identical geometry with separate bias electrodes. Fabricated arrays, 800 µm in diameter, with 32 Rx and 24 Tx elements were designed to operate at 23 MHz and 12 MHz with collapse voltages measured to be at 190 V and 60 V respectively. The samples were coated with 3 µm of Parylene C for electrical isolation and tested in water. Pitch catch experiments with a fixed transmit pulse showed optimal receiver sensitivity close to the measured collapse voltage. The output pressure for different transmitter biasing and pulse combinations were measured using a broadband hydrophone. Experiments using the 12 MHz device and a 5 cycle tone burst showed that without biasing, it was possible to transmit at two times the excitation frequency with harmonic separation of 25 dB. Bipolar and unipolar pulse excitation also showed that the peak pressure can be improved by 14 dB and 5.7 dB with respect to optimal transmission biased close to collapse. Further experimentation with the 23 MHz array showed that it was possible to increase the transmit pressure by 4.2 dB without altering the frequency content though the use of a bipolar pulse and bias greater than the 190 V collapse. These trends are in agreement with a simple SPICE based CMUT model. We have shown that the optimal transmit conditions regarding bias and pulse characteristics do not coincide with the optimal receive bias. Dual ring arrays can take advantage of this optimization to improve the SNR of the system.

A nonlinear lumped model for ultrasound systems using CMUT arrays

We present a nonlinear lumped model that predicts the electrical input-output behavior of an ultrasonic system using CMUTs with arbitrary array/membrane/electrode geometry in different transmit-receive configurations and drive signals. The receive-only operation, where the electrical output signal of the CMUT array in response to incident pressure field is calculated, is included by modifying the boundary element-based vibroacoustic formulation for a CMUT array in rigid baffle. Along with the accurate large signal transmit model, this formulation covers pitch-catch and pulse-echo operation when transmit and receive signals can be separated in time. In cases when this separation is not valid, such as CMUTs used in continuous wave transmit-receive mode, pulse-echo mode with a nearby hard or soft wall or in a bounded space such as in a microfluidic channel, an efficient formulation based on the method of images is used. Some of these particular applications and the overall modeling approach have been validated through comparison with finite element analysis on specific examples including CMUTs with multiple electrodes. To further demonstrate the capability of the model for imaging applications, the two-way response of a partial dual-ring intravascular ultrasound array is simulated using a parallel computing cluster, where the output currents of individual array elements are calculated for given input pulse and compared with experimental results. With its versatility, the presented model can be a useful tool for rapid iterative CMUT-based system design and simulation for a broad range of ultrasonic applications.