Shashi B. Verma

FLUXNET: A New Tool to Study the Temporal and Spatial Variability of Ecosystem-Scale Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapor, and Energy Flux Densities

FLUXNET is a global network of micrometeorological flux measurement sites that measure the exchanges of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy between the biosphere and atmosphere. At present over 140 sites are operating on a long-term and continuous basis. Vegetation under study includes temperate conifer and broadleaved (deciduous and evergreen) forests, tropical and boreal forests, crops, grasslands, chaparral, wetlands, and tundra. Sites exist on five continents and their latitudinal distribution ranges from 70°N to 30°S. FLUXNET has several primary functions. First, it provides infrastructure for compiling, archiving, and distributing carbon, water, and energy flux measurement, and meteorological, plant, and soil data to the science community. (Data and site information are available online at the FLUXNET Web site, http://www-eosdis.ornl.gov/FLUXNET/.) Second, the project supports calibration and flux intercomparison activities. This activity ensures that data from the regional networks are intercomparable. And third, FLUXNET supports the synthesis, discussion, and communication of ideas and data by supporting project scientists, workshops, and visiting scientists. The overarching goal is to provide information for validating computations of net primary productivity, evaporation, and energy absorption that are being generated by sensors mounted on the NASA Terra satellite. Data being compiled by FLUXNET are being used to quantify and compare magnitudes and dynamics of annual ecosystem carbon and water balances, to quantify the response of stand-scale carbon dioxide and water vapor flux densities to controlling biotic and abiotic factors, and to validate a hierarchy of soil–plant–atmosphere trace gas exchange models. Findings so far include 1) net CO 2 exchange of temperate broadleaved forests increases by about 5.7 g C m −2 day −1 for each additional day that the growing season is extended; 2) the sensitivity of net ecosystem CO 2 exchange to sunlight doubles if the sky is cloudy rather than clear; 3) the spectrum of CO 2 flux density exhibits peaks at timescales of days, weeks, and years, and a spectral gap exists at the month timescale; 4) the optimal temperature of net CO 2 exchange varies with mean summer temperature; and 5) stand age affects carbon dioxide and water vapor flux densities.

Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites

A comprehensive evaluation of energy balance closure is performed across 22 sites and 50 site-years in FLUXNET, a network of eddy covariance sites measuring long-term carbon and energy fluxes in contrasting ecosystems and climates. Energy balance closure was evaluated by statistical regression of turbulent energy fluxes (sensible and latent heat (LE)) against available energy (net radiation, less the energy stored) and by solving for the energy balance ratio, the ratio of turbulent energy fluxes to available energy. These methods indicate a general lack of closure at most sites, with a mean imbalance in the order of 20%. The imbalance was prevalent in all measured vegetation types and in climates ranging from Mediterranean to temperate and arctic. There were no clear differences between sites using open and closed path infrared gas analyzers. At a majority of sites closure improved with turbulent intensity (friction velocity), but lack of total closure was still prevalent under most conditions. The imbalance was greatest during nocturnal periods. The results suggest that estimates of the scalar turbulent fluxes of sensible and LE are underestimated and/or that available energy is overestimated. The implications on interpreting long-term CO2 fluxes at FLUXNET sites depends on whether the imbalance results primarily from general errors associated

Relationship between gross primary production and chlorophyll content in crops: Implications for the synoptic monitoring of vegetation productivity

CO2/m 2 s in maize (GPP ranged from 0 to 3.1 mg CO2/m 2 s) and less than 0.2 mg CO2/m 2 s in soybean (GPP ranged from 0 to 1.8 mg CO2/m 2 s). Validation using an independent data set for irrigated and rainfed maize showed robustness of the technique; RMSE of GPP prediction was less than 0.27 mg CO2/m 2 s.

Carbon dioxide exchange in a peatland ecosystem

Micrometeorological measurements of carbon dioxide exchange were made in an open peatland in north central Minnesota during two growing seasons (1991 and 1992). The vegetation at the site was dominated by Sphagnum papillosum, Scheuchzeria palustris, and Chamaedaphne calyculata. The objective of the study was to examine the diurnal and seasonal variations in canopy photosynthesis (P) and develop information on the net ecosystem CO2 exchange. The two seasons provided contrasting microclimatic conditions: as compared with 1991, the 1992 season was significantly wetter and cooler. Canopy photosynthesis was sensitive to changes in light, temperature, and moisture stress (as indicated by water table depth and atmospheric vapor pressure deficit). Under moderate conditions (temperature 18–28°C, vapor pressure deficit 0.7–1.5 kPa, and water table near the surface) during the peak growth period, midday (averaged between 1000–1400 hours) P values ranged from 0.15 to 0.24 mg m−2 s−1. Under high-temperature (30°–34°C) and moisture stress (water table 0.16–0.23 m below the surface and vapor pressure deficit 2.2–3.0 kPa) conditions, midday P was reduced to about 0.03–0.06 mg m−2 s−1. There was a high degree of consistency in the values of P under similar conditions in the two seasons. Seasonally integrated values of the daily net ecosystem CO2 exchange indicated that the study site was a source of atmospheric CO2, releasing about 71 g C m−2 over a 145-day period (May-October) in 1991. Over a similar period in 1992, however, this ecosystem was a sink for atmospheric CO2 with a net accumulation of about 32 g C m−2. These results are consistent with previous investigations on CO2 exchange in other northern wetland sites during wet and dry periods.

Eddy fluxes of CO2, water vapor, and sensible heat over a deciduous forest

Fluxes of CO2, latent heat and sensible heat were measured above a fully-leafed deciduous forest in eastern Tennessee with the eddy correlation technique. These are among the first reported observations over such a surface. The influences of solar radiation, vapor pressure deficit and the aerodynamic and canopy resistances on these mass and energy exchanges are examined. Following a concept introduced by McNaughton and Jarvis (1983), examination of our data suggest that the water vapor exchange of a deciduous forest is not as strongly coupled with net radiation as is that of agricultural crops. The degree of decoupling is smaller than in the case of a coniferous forest. This difference may be attributable in part to the greater aerodynamic resistance to water vapor transfer in a deciduous forest. It appears that the concept of decoupling may be extended to the CO2 exchange of a deciduous forest as well.

Energy Partitioning Between Latent And Sensible Heat Flux During The Warm Season At Fluxnet Sites

The warm season (mid-June through late August) partitioning between sensible (H) and latent (LE) heat flux, or the Bowen ratio (beta=H/LE), was investigated at 27 sites over 66 site years within the international network of eddy covariance sites (FLUXNET). Variability in beta across ecosystems and climates was analyzed by quantifying general climatic and surface characteristics that control flux partitioning. The climatic control on beta was quantified using the climatological resistance (R-i), which is proportional to the ratio of vapor pressure deficit (difference between saturation vapor pressure and atmospheric vapor pressure) to net radiation (large values of R-i decrease beta). The control of flux partitioning by the vegetation and underlying surface was quantified by computing the surface resistance to water vapor transport (R-c, with large values tending to increase beta). There was a considerable range in flux partitioning characteristics (R-c, R-i and beta) among sites, but it was possible to define some general differences between vegetation types and climates. Deciduous forest sites and the agricultural site had the lowest values of R-c and beta (0.25-0.50). Coniferous forests typically had a larger R-c and higher beta (typically between 0.50 and 1.00 but also much larger). However, there was notable variability in R-c and R-i between coniferous site years, most notably differences between oceanic and continental climates and sites with a distinct dry summer season (Mediterranean climate). Sites with Mediterranean climates generally had the highest net radiation, R-c, R-i, and beta. There was considerable variability in beta between grassland site years, primarily the result of interannual differences in soil water content and R-c

Relationship Between Ecosystem Productivity and Photosynthetically Active Radiation for Northern Peatlands

We analyzed the relationship between net ecosystem exchange of carbon dioxide (NEE) and irradiance (as photosynthetic photon flux density or PPFD), using published and unpublished data that have been collected during midgrowing season for carbon balance studies at seven peatlands in North America and Europe. NEE measurements included both eddy-correlation tower and clear, static chamber methods, which gave very similar results. Data were analyzed by site, as aggregated data sets by peatland type (bog, poor fen, rich fen, and all fens) and as a single aggregated data set for all peatlands. In all cases, a fit with a rectangular hyperbola (NEE = α PPFD Pmax/(α PPFD + Pmax) + R) better described the NEE-PPFD relationship than did a linear fit (NEE = β PPFD + R). Poor and rich fens generally had similar NEE-PPFD relationships, while bogs had lower respiration rates (R = −2.0μmol m−2s−1 for bogs and −2.7 μmol m−2s−1 for fens) and lower NEE at moderate and high light levels (Pmax = 5.2 μmol m−2s−1 for bogs and 10.8 μmol m−2s−1 for fens). As a single class, northern peatlands had much smaller ecosystem respiration (R = −2.4 μmol m−2s−1) and NEE rates (α = 0.020 and Pmax = 9.2μmol m−2s−1) than the upland ecosystems (closed canopy forest, grassland, and cropland) summarized by Ruimy et al. [1995]. Despite this low productivity, northern peatland soil carbon pools are generally 5–50 times larger than upland ecosystems because of slow rates of decomposition caused by litter quality and anaerobic, cold soils.

Area‐averaged surface fluxes and their time‐space variability over the FIFE experimental domain

The underlying mean and variance properties of surface net radiation, soil heat flux, and sensible-latent heat fluxes are examined over the densely instrumented grassland region encompassing the First ISLSCP Field Experiment (FIFE). Twenty-two surface flux stations at 20 sites were deployed during the four 1987 intensive field campaigns (IFCs). Flux variability is addressed together with the problem of scaling up to area-averaged fluxes. Successful parameterization of area-averaged fluxes in atmospheric models is based on accounting for internal spatial and temporal scales correctly. Mean and variance properties of fluxes are examined in both daily and diurnally averaged frameworks. Results are compared and contrasted for clear and cloudy situations and checked for the influence of surface-induced biophysical controls (burn and grazing treatments) and topographic controls (slope factors and aspect ratios). Examination of the sensitivity of domain-averaged fluxes to different averaging procedures demonstrates that this may be an important consideration. The results reveal six key features of the 1987 surface fluxes: (1) cloudiness variability and ample rainfall throughout the growing season led to near-consistency in flux magnitudes during the first three IFCs; (2) burn treatment, grazing conditions, and topography have clearly delineated influences on the diurnal cycle flux amplitudes but do not alter the evaporative fraction significantly; (3) cloudiness is the major control on flux variability in terms of both mean and variance properties but has little impact on the Bowen ratio or evaporative fraction; (4) spatial weighting of fluxes based on a biophysicaltopographical cross stratification generates a measurable bias with respect to straight arithmetic averaging (up to 20 W m−2 in available heating); (5) structure function analysis demonstrates significant underlying spatial autocorrelation structure in the fluxes, but the observed distance dependence is due to cloudiness controls, not surface controls; (6) Monte Carlo analysis of high resolution vegetation indices obtained from SPOT satellite measurements suggest that the mean domain amplitudes of the diurnal sensible and latent heat flux cycles can be biased up to 30–40 W m −2 by repositioning the 20 site locations within the experimental domain.

Turbulent Exchange Coefficients for Sensible Heat and Water Vapor under Advective Conditions

Abstract Results are presented of micrometeorological measurements made over alfalfa and soybeans under conditions of sensible heat advection at Mead, Neb. The sensible heat advection phenomenon reported here is of a regional rather than a local nature. The exchange coefficient for sensible heat (KH) is found to be generally greater than the exchange coefficient for water vapor (KW). This result contradicts the usual assumption of equality of KH and KW under nonadvection (lapse or unstable) conditions when the net transfer of both sensible heat and water vapor are away from the earths surface. Under advective conditions, however, heat and water vapor are transferred in opposite directions. Our results are supported by Warhafts (1976) recently published theoretical analysis in which he concludes that the greatest departure of KH/KW from unity will occur when temperature and humidity gradients are of opposite sign.

Momentum, water vapor, and carbon dioxide exchange at a centrally located prairie site during FIFE

Eddy correlation measurements were made of fluxes of momentum, sensible heat, water vapor, and carbon dioxide at a centrally located plateau site in the FIFE study area during the period from May to October 1987. About 82% of the vegetation at the site was comprised of several C4 grass species (big bluestem, Indian grass, switchgrass, tall dropseed, little bluestem, and blue grama), with the remainder being C3 grasses, sedges, forbs, and woody plants. The prairie was burned in mid-April and was not grazed. Precipitation during the study period was about normal, except for a 3-week dry period in late July to early August, which caused moisture stress conditions. The drag coefficient ( Cd=u*2/u¯2, where u* is the friction velocity and ū is the mean wind speed at 2.25 m above the ground) of the prairie vegetation ranged from 0.0087 to 0.0099. The average d/zc and z0/zc (where d is the zero plane displacement, z0 is the roughness parameter, and zc is the canopy height) were estimated to be about 0.71 and 0.028, respectively. Information was developed on the aerodynamic conductance (ga) in terms of mean wind speed (measured at a reference height) for different periods in the growing season. During the early and peak growth stages, with favorable soil moisture, the daily evapotranspiration (ET) rates ranged from 3.9 to 6.6 mm d−1. The ET rate during the dry period was between 2.9 and 3.8 mm d−1. The value of the Priestley-Taylor coefficient (α), calculated as the ratio of the measured ET to the equilibrium ET, averaged around 1.26 when the canopy stomatal resistance (rc) was less than 100 s m−1. When rc increased above 100 s m−1, α decreased rapidly. The atmospheric CO2 flux data (eddy correlation) were used, in conjunction with estimated soil CO2 flux, to evaluate canopy photosynthesis (Pc). The dependence of Pc on photosynthetically active radiation (KPAR), vapor pressure deficit, and soil moisture was examined. Under nonlimiting soil moisture conditions, Pc was primarily controlled by KPAR through a rectangular hyperbolic relationship. Our data did not indicate light saturation of the canopy up to KPAR levels of 2100 μEi m−2 s−1. Midday values of Pc reached a seasonal peak of 1.4–1.5 mg m−2 (ground area) s−1 during late June and early July. During the dry period (late July to early August), midday Pc declined to a minimum of almost zero. Examination of data on Pc, λE/Rn (the proportion of net radiation consumed in latent heat flux), extractable soil water, and the predawn leaf water potential indicated a remarkable similarity in overall patterns throughout the season. The photosynthetic efficiency was 1.5–2% during midday through most of the growing season (except during the dry period). The midday value of the prairie water use efficiency during the peak growth stage was 8–12 × 10−3 g CO2/g H2O.