Sundar A. Christopher

A review of biomass burning emissions part III: intensive optical properties of biomass burning particles

Because of its wide coverage over much of the globe, biomass burning has been widely studied in the context of direct radiative forcing. Such study is warranted as smoke particles scatter and at times absorb solar radiation efficiently. Further, as much of what is known about smoke transport and impacts is based on remote sensing measurements, the optical properties of smoke particles have far reaching effects into numerous aspects of biomass burning studies. Global estimates of direct forcing have been widely varying, ranging from near zero to −1 W m−2. A significant part of this difference can be traced to varying assumptions on the optical properties of smoke. This manuscript is the third part of four examining biomass-burning emissions. Here we review and discuss the literature concerning measurement and modeling of optical properties of biomassburning particles. These include available data from published sensitivity studies, field campaigns, and inversions from the Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) of Sun photometer sites. As a whole, optical properties reported in the literature are varied, reflecting both the dynamic nature of fires, variations in smoke aging processes and differences in measurement technique. We find that forward modeling or “internal closure” studies ultimately are of little help in resolving outstanding measurement issues due to the high degree of degeneracy in solutions when using “reasonable” input parameters. This is particularly notable with respect to index of refraction and the treatment of black carbon. Consequently, previous claims of column closure may in fact be more ambiguous. Differences between in situ and retrieved ωo values have implications for estimates of mass scattering and mass absorption efficiencies. In this manuscript we Correspondence to: J. S. Reid (reidj@nrlmry.navy.mil) review and discuss this community dataset. Strengths and lapses are pointed out, future research topics are prioritized, and best estimates and uncertainties of key smoke particle parameters are provided.

Intercomparison between satellite‐derived aerosol optical thickness and PM2.5 mass: Implications for air quality studies

[1] We explore the relationship between column aerosol optical thickness (AOT) derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MODIS) on the Terra/Aqua satellites and hourly fine particulate mass (PM2.5) measured at the surface at seven locations in Jefferson county, Alabama for 2002. Results indicate that there is a good correlation between the satellite-derived AOT and PM2.5 (linear correlation coefficient, R = 0.7) indicating that most of the aerosols are in the well-mixed lower boundary layer during the satellite overpass times. There is excellent agreement between the monthly mean PM2.5 and MODIS AOT (R > 0.9), with maximum values during the summer months due to enhanced photolysis. The PM2.5 has a distinct diurnal signature with maxima in the early morning (6:00 8:00AM) due to increased traffic flow and restricted mixing depths during these hours. Using simple empirical linear relationships derived between the MODIS AOT and 24hr mean PM2.5 we show that the MODIS AOT can be used quantitatively to estimate air quality categories as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with an accuracy of more than 90% in cloud-free conditions. We discuss the factors that affect the correlation between satellite-derived AOT and PM2.5 mass, and emphasize that more research is needed before applying these methods and results over other areas. INDEX TERMS: 0305 Atmospheric Composition and Structure: Aerosols and particles (0345, 4801); 0345 Atmospheric Composition and Structure: Pollution—urban and regional (0305); 3360 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Remote sensing; 3300 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics. Citation: Wang, J., and S. A. Christopher, Intercomparison between satellitederived aerosol optical thickness and PM2.5 mass: Implications for air quality studies, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(21), 2095, doi:10.1029/ 2003GL018174, 2003.

Remote Sensing of Particulate Pollution from Space: Have We Reached the Promised Land?

Abstract The recent literature on satellite remote sensing of air quality is reviewed. 2009 is the 50th anniversary of the first satellite atmospheric observations. For the first 40 of those years, atmospheric composition measurements, meteorology, and atmospheric structure and dynamics dominated the missions launched. Since 1995, 42 instruments relevant to air quality measurements have been put into orbit. Trace gases such as ozone, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, water, oxygen/tetraoxygen, bromine oxide, sulfur dioxide, formaldehyde, glyoxal, chlorine dioxide, chlorine monoxide, and nitrate radical have been measured in the stratosphere and troposphere in column measurements. Aerosol optical depth (AOD) is a focus of this review and a significant body of literature exists that shows that ground-level fine particulate matter (PM2.5) can be estimated from columnar AOD. Precision of the measurement of AOD is ±20% and the prediction of PM2.5 from AOD is order ±30% in the most careful studies. The air quality needs that can use such predictions are examined. Satellite measurements are important to event detection, transport and model prediction, and emission estimation. It is suggested that ground-based measurements, models, and satellite measurements should be viewed as a system, each component of which is necessary to better understand air quality.

Use of the Ångstrom exponent to estimate the variability of optical and physical properties of aging smoke particles in Brazil

In situ airborne measurements from the Smoke, Clouds and Radiation-Brazil (SCAR-B) study show that during aging over 1–4 days the physical and optical properties of smoke particles are correlated. Consequently, if one optical or physical property of the smoke particles is determined, other properties can be derived. This methodology is validated using multiwavelength Angstrom exponents determined from the ground-based Sun photometer measurements in SCAR-B. It is shown that the Angstrom exponent determined from Sun photometers for the wavelength intervals 339–437 nm and 437–669 nm are well correlated with particle size, single-scattering albedo, and the backscatter ratio (r2>0.8). Therefore, when almucantar sky radiance data are not available and for remote sensing applications (such as MODIS), some of the uncertainties in the properties of smoke particles can be reduced by applying these relationships. Using this methodology, major oscillations were observed in smoke particle properties in Brazil on timescales of ∼5–15 days, resulting in variations of the volume median diameter and single-scattering albedo of ±0.04 μm and ±0.05, respectively. In comparison, the mean value of the dry smoke particle volume median diameter and single-scattering albedo over all of Brazil was 0.27 μm and 0.86, respectively. A daily cycle in smoke particle properties was also observed. The weekly and seasonal variability in the single-scattering albedo is shown to have significant consequences for retrieving aerosol optical depths from satellite measurements.

Global Monitoring and Forecasting of Biomass-Burning Smoke: Description of and Lessons From the Fire Locating and Modeling of Burning Emissions (FLAMBE) Program

Recently, global biomass-burning research has grown from what was primarily a climate field to include a vibrant air quality observation and forecasting community. While new fire monitoring systems are based on fundamental Earth Systems Science (ESS) research, adaptation to the forecasting problem requires special procedures and simplifications. In a reciprocal manner, results from the air quality research community have contributed scientifically to basic ESS. To help exploit research and data products in climate, ESS, meteorology and air quality biomass burning communities, the joint Navy, NASA, NOAA, and University Fire Locating and Modeling of Burning Emissions (FLAMBE) program was formed in 1999. Based upon the operational NOAA/NESDIS Wild-Fire Automated Biomass Burning Algorithm (WF_ABBA) and the near real time University of Maryland/NASA MODIS fire products coupled to the operational Navy Aerosol Analysis and Prediction System (NAAPS) transport model, FLAMBE is a combined ESS and operational system to study the nature of smoke particle emissions and transport at the synoptic to continental scales. In this paper, we give an overview of the FLAMBE system and present fundamental metrics on emission and transport patterns of smoke. We also provide examples on regional smoke transport mechanisms and demonstrate that MODIS optical depth data assimilation provides significant variance reduction against observations. Using FLAMBE as a context, throughout the paper we discuss observability issues surrounding the biomass burning system and the subsequent propagation of error. Current indications are that regional particle emissions estimates still have integer factors of uncertainty.

An "A-Train" Strategy for Quantifying Direct Climate Forcing by Anthropogenic Aerosols

Abstract This document outlines a practical strategy for achieving an observationally based quantification of direct climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. The strategy involves a four-step program for shifting the current assumption-laden estimates to an increasingly empirical basis using satellite observations coordinated with suborbital remote and in situ measurements and with chemical transport models. Conceptually, the problem is framed as a need for complete global mapping of four parameters: clear-sky aerosol optical depth δ, radiative efficiency per unit optical depth E, fine-mode fraction of optical depth ff, and the anthropogenic fraction of the fine mode faf. The first three parameters can be retrieved from satellites, but correlative, suborbital measurements are required for quantifying the aerosol properties that control E, for validating the retrieval of ff, and for partitioning fine-mode δ between natural and anthropogenic components. The satellite focus is on the “A-Train,” a constella...

Updated estimate of aerosol direct radiative forcing from satellite observations and comparison against the Hadley Centre climate model

[1] The fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) includes a comparison of observation-based and modeling-based estimates of the aerosol direct radiative forcing. In this comparison, satellite-based studies suggest a more negative aerosol direct radiative forcing than modeling studies. A previous satellitebased study, part of the IPCC comparison, uses aerosol optical depths and accumulationmode fractions retrieved by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) at collection 4. The latest version of MODIS products, named collection 5, improves aerosol retrievals. Using these products, the direct forcing in the shortwave spectrum defined with respect to present-day natural aerosols is now estimated at � 1.30 and � 0.65 Wm �2 on a global clear-sky and all-sky average, respectively, for 2002. These values are still significantly more negative than the numbers reported by modeling studies. By accounting for differences between present-day natural and preindustrial aerosol concentrations, sampling biases, and investigating the impact of differences in the zonal distribution of anthropogenic aerosols, good agreement is reached between the direct forcing derived from MODIS and the Hadley Centre climate model HadGEM2-A over clear-sky oceans. Results also suggest that satellite estimates of anthropogenic aerosol optical depth over land should be coupled with a robust validation strategy in order to refine the observation-based estimate of aerosol direct radiative forcing. In addition, the complex problem of deriving the aerosol direct radiative forcing when aerosols are located above cloud still needs to be addressed.

First estimates of the radiative forcing of aerosols generated from biomass burning using satellite data

Collocated measurements from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) and the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) scanner are used to examine the radiative forcing of atmospheric aerosols generated from biomass burning for 13 images in South America. Using the AVHRR, Local Area Coverage (LAC) data, a new technique based on a combination of spectral and textural measures is developed for detecting these aerosols. Then, the instantaneous shortwave, longwave, and net radiative forcing values are computed from the ERBE instantaneous scanner data. Results for the selected samples from 13 images show that the mean instantaneous net radiative forcing for areas with heavy aerosol loading is about -36 W/sq m and that for the optically thin aerosols are about -16 W/sq m. These results, although preliminary, provide the first estimates of radiative forcing of atmospheric aerosols from biomass burning using satellite data.

Shortwave aerosol radiative forcing over cloud-free oceans from Terra: 2. Seasonal and global distributions

[1] Using 10 months of collocated Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) scanner and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aerosol and cloud data from Terra, we provide estimates of the shortwave aerosol direct radiative forcing (SWARF) and its uncertainties over the cloud-free global oceans. Newly developed aerosol angular distribution models (ADMs) (Zhang et al., 2005), specifically for different sea surface conditions and aerosol types, are used for inverting the CERES observed radiances to shortwave fluxes while accounting for the effect of aerosol optical properties on the anisotropy of the top of atmosphere (TOA) shortwave radiation fields. The spatial and seasonal distributions of SWARF are presented, and the MODIS retrieved aerosol optical depth (t0.55) and the independently derived SWARF show a high degree of correlation and can be estimated using the equation SWARF = 0.05 � 74.6 t0.55 + 18.2 t0.55 Wm � 2 (t0.55 < 0.8). The instantaneous TOA SWARF from Terra overpass time is � 6.4 ± 2.6 W m � 2 for cloud-free oceans. Accounting for sample biases and diurnal averaging, we estimate the SWARF over cloud-free oceans to be � 5.3 ± 1.7 W m � 2 , consistent with previous studies. Our study is an independent measurementbased assessment of cloud-free aerosol radiative forcing that could be used as a validation tool for numerical modeling studies.

Observations of the global characteristics and regional radiative effects of marine cloud liquid water

Abstract The large-scale spatial distribution and temporal variability of cloud liquid water path (LWP) over the worlds oceans and the relationship of cloud LWP to temperature and the radiation budget are investigated using recent satellite measurements from the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager(SSM/1),the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE), and the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP). Observations of cloud liquid water on a 2.5° × 2.5° grid are used over a 53-month period beginning July 1987 and ending in December 1991. The highest values of cloud liquid water (greater than 0.13 kg m−2) occur largely along principal routes of northern midlatitude storm and in area dominated by tropical convection. The zonally averaged structure is distinctly trimodal, where maxima appear in the midlatitudes and near the equator. The avenge marine cloud LWP over the globe is estimated to he about 0.113 kg m−2. Its highest seasonal variability is typically between 15% and 25% of the annual mean b...