Susan Golombok

Children With Lesbian Parents: A Community Study

Existing research on children with lesbian parents is limited by reliance on volunteer or convenience samples. The present study examined the quality of parent-child relationships and the socioemotional and gender development of a community sample of 7-year-old children with lesbian parents. Families were recruited through the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a geographic population study of 14,000 mothers and their children. Thirty-nine lesbian-mother families, 74 two-parent heterosexual families, and 60 families headed by single heterosexual mothers were compared on standardized interview and questionnaire measures administered to mothers, co-mothers/fathers, children, and teachers. Findings are in line with those of earlier investigations showing positive mother-child relationships and well-adjusted children.

Do Parents Influence the Sexual Orientation of Their Children? Findings from a Longitudinal Study of Lesbian Families.

Findings are presented of a longitudinal study of the sexual orientation of adults who had been raised as children in lesbian families. Twenty-five children of lesbian mothers and a control group of 21 children of heterosexual single mothers were first seen at age 9.5 years on average, and again at age 23.5 years on average. Standardized interviews were used to obtain data on sexual orientation from the young adults in the follow-up study, and on family characteristics and childrens gender role behavior from the mothers and their children in the initial study. Although those from lesbian families were more likely to explore same-sex relationships, particularly if their childhood family environment was characterized by an openness and acceptance of lesbian and gay relationships, the large majority of children who grew up in lesbian families identified as heterosexual. Opinion varies among biological and psychological theorists regarding the extent to which it is possible for parents to influence the sexual orientation of their children. From a purely biological perspective, parents should make little difference. In contrast, psychoanalytic theorists believe that relationships with parents in childhood are central to the development of sexual orientation in adult life. Research on adults raised in lesbian families provides an opportunity to test theoretical assumptions about the role of parents in their childrens sexual orientation; if parents are influential in whether their children grow up to be heterosexual, lesbian, or gay, then it might be expected that lesbian parents would be more likely than heterosexual parents to have lesbian daughters and gay sons. With the exception of Gottmans (1990) investigation of adult daughters of lesbian mothers in which actual sexual behavior was not reported, research on lesbian families has focused on children rather than adults, and sexual orientation has not been assessed (Golombok, Spencer, & Rutter, 1983; Green, Mandel, Hotvedt, Gray,SHoeffer, 1981; Kirkpatrick, Smith, & Roy,

Testosterone during pregnancy and gender role behavior of preschool children: A longitudinal, population study

Levels of testosterone (T) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) were measured in blood samples from pregnant women and related to gender role behavior in 342 male and 337 female offspring at the age of 3.5 years. Gender role behavior was assessed using the Pre-School Activities Inventory, a standardized measure on which a parent indicates the childs involvement with sex-typical toys, games, and activities. Levels of T, but not SHBG, related linearly to gender role behavior in preschool girls. Neither hormone related to gender role behavior in boys. Other factors, including the presence of older brothers or sisters in the home, parental adherence to traditional sex roles, the presence of a male partner in the home, and maternal education, did not relate to gender role behavior in this sample and did not account for the relation observed between T and behavior. Although other, unmeasured factors may explain the relation, the results suggest that normal variability in T levels prenatally may contribute to the development of individual differences in the gender role behavior of preschool girls.

Cognitive impairment in long-term benzodiazepine users

In view of the very extensive and often prolonged use of benzodiazepines in therapeutic practice, this study was designed to investigate whether or not cognitive ability is impaired in long-term benzodiazepine users, and to determine the nature and extent of any deficit. Fifty patients currently taking benzodiazepines for at least one year, thirty-four who had stopped taking benzodiazepines, and a matched control group of subjects who had never taken benzodiazepines or who had taken benzodiazepines in the past for less than one year were administered a battery of neuropsychological tests designed to measure a wide range of cognitive functions. It was found that patients taking high doses of benzodiazepines for long periods of time perform poorly on tasks involving visual-spatial ability and sustained attention. This is consistent with deficits in posterior cortical cognitive function.

Parenting infants conceived by gamete donation.

In recent years, concerns have been raised regarding the potentially negative consequences of gamete donation for parent-child relationships. Findings are presented of a study of families with an infant conceived by gamete donation. Fifty donor insemination families and 51 egg donation families were compared with 80 natural conception families on standardized interview and questionnaire measures of the psychological well-being of the parents, the quality of parent-child relationships, and infant temperament. The differences that were identified indicated more positive parent-child relationships among the gamete donation than the natural conception parents, accompanied by greater emotional involvement with the child. Comparisons were also carried out between the donor insemination and the egg donation parents on their experiences of gamete donation. In contrast to the findings of earlier investigations, the donor insemination and egg donation parents appeared to be more open toward disclosing the donor conception to the child. It was concluded that infants conceived by egg or sperm donation did not appear to be at risk for parenting difficulties.

Validation of the Profile of Female Sexual Function (PFSF) in Surgically and Naturally Menopausal Women

The Profile of Female Sexual Function (PFSF) is a patient-based instrument for the measuring of loss of sexual function in menopausal women with low libido (hypoactive female sexual desire disorder). The instrument, which contains 37 items in seven domains (sexual desire, arousal, orgasm, sexual pleasure, sexual concerns, sexual responsiveness, and sexual self-image) and a single-item measure of overall satisfaction with sexuality, has been extensively developed and initially validated in over 500 oophorectomized women with low libido in North America, Europe, and Australia. Initial validation results showed the PFSF is capable of discriminating these patients from age-matched controls and produced consistent responses and sensitivity across geographies. The objective of this nonrandomized, parallel-group study was to examine the psychometric properties of the final PFSF in an independent group of surgically menopausal women with low libido and to extend validation to naturally menopausal women with low libido. Participants from 16 study centers in North America included surgically (n = 59) and naturally (n = 88) menopausal women with low libido and their age-matched control subjects, both premenopausal (n = 57) and naturally menopausal (n = 47), who reported no problems with libido. Subjects completed the PFSF at baseline and again 4 weeks later. Adjusted mean scores for each of the seven domains were statistically significantly lower (P < 0.0001) in surgically menopausal women with low libido compared with age-matched control women, and in naturally menopausal women with low libido compared with naturally menopausal control women, demonstrating excellent discriminant validity. Test-retest reliability ranged from 0.57 to 0.91 for the seven domain scores, whereas internal-consistency reliability ranged from 0.74 to 0.95. Results of this research support the conclusion that the PFSF is a valid and reliable instrument for measurement of loss of sexual function in both naturally and surgically menopausal women with low libido.

Families with Children Conceived by Donor Insemination: A Follow-Up at Age Twelve

Growing public awareness of the use of donor insemination (DI) to enable infertile couples to become parents has been accompanied by increasing concern regarding the potentially negative consequences for family relationships and child development. Findings are presented from a prospective study of the quality of parenting and psychological adjustment of DI children at age 12. Thirty-seven DI families, 49 adoptive families, and 91 families with a naturally conceived child were compared on standardized interview and questionnaire measures administered to mothers, fathers, children, and teachers. The differences between DI families and the other family types reflected greater expressive warmth of DI mothers toward their children and less involvement in the discipline of their children by DI fathers. The DI children were well adjusted in terms of their social and emotional development. The findings are discussed with respect to the secrecy surrounding DI and the imbalance in genetic relatedness between the parents and the child.

Predicting uptake of a routine cervical smear test: A comparison of the health belief model and the theory of planned behaviour

Abstract This paper reports on a study carried out to identify predictors of uptake of cervical screening among 142 women (59% response rate) in inner London. Two social cognition models were used: The Health Belief Model (HBM; Becker, 1974) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991) and in addition anticipated affect following non-attendance for screening was assessed. The TPB emerged as by far the superior model for predicting screening intentions, explaining 51% of the variance in comparison with only 4% explained by the HBM variables. However, neither model was able to predict a significant amount of variance in uptake of screening three months later. Possible reasons for the poor prediction of this type of behaviour are discussed.

The "Test-Tube" Generation: Parent-Child Relationships and the Psychological Well-Being of In Vitro Fertilization Children at Adolescence

The introduction of in vitro fertilization (IVF) at the end of the 20th century constituted a fundamental change in the way in which families could be created, and by the start of the new millennium an increasing number of children have been (and are being) born as a result of this procedure. This article presents findings of a longitudinal study of the first cohort of children conceived by IVF to reach adolescence. Thirty-four IVF families, 49 adoptive families, and 38 families with a naturally conceived child were compared on standardized interview and questionnaire measures of parent-child relationships and childrens psychological well-being. The few differences in parent-child relationships that were identified appeared to be associated with the experience of infertility rather than with IVF per se. The IVF children were found to be functioning well and did not differ from the adoptive or naturally conceived children on any of the assessments of social or emotional adjustment.

Profile of Female Sexual Function: A patient-based, international, psychometric instrument for the assessment of hypoactive sexual desire in oophorectomized women

Objective:The purpose of this study was to develop a self-administered, patient-based questionnaire to assess loss of sexual desire and associated symptoms in postmenopausal women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) experiencing distress. Design:Preliminary items and domains of sexual function were identified through individual and focus group interviews with postmenopausal women in the United States and Europe. A subset of items was selected for translation and further analysis. Cognitive interviews were conducted with women with HSDD and non-HSDD women in eight countries to ensure items would have the same meaning in seven languages. The resulting instrument was tested in 325 oophorectomized women with HSDD and 255 age-matched nonoophorectomized control women in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Australia. Results:Psychometric item reduction analyses resulted in 37 items organized into seven domains characterizing female sexual function in postmenopausal women with HSDD. Excellent reliability and validity of the domains of the Profile of Female Sexual Function (PFSF) were observed in all geographic areas tested. Statistically significant differences between oophorectomized women with low libido and control women were found for all domains and all geographic areas. Conclusions:The PFSF is a new instrument specifically designed for measurement of sexual desire in oophorectomized women with low libido. Robust psychometric properties have been established in a large number of geographic regions and languages, making it useful for assessing therapeutic change in multinational clinical trials.