Vasanti Jadva

Parenting infants conceived by gamete donation.

In recent years, concerns have been raised regarding the potentially negative consequences of gamete donation for parent-child relationships. Findings are presented of a study of families with an infant conceived by gamete donation. Fifty donor insemination families and 51 egg donation families were compared with 80 natural conception families on standardized interview and questionnaire measures of the psychological well-being of the parents, the quality of parent-child relationships, and infant temperament. The differences that were identified indicated more positive parent-child relationships among the gamete donation than the natural conception parents, accompanied by greater emotional involvement with the child. Comparisons were also carried out between the donor insemination and the egg donation parents on their experiences of gamete donation. In contrast to the findings of earlier investigations, the donor insemination and egg donation parents appeared to be more open toward disclosing the donor conception to the child. It was concluded that infants conceived by egg or sperm donation did not appear to be at risk for parenting difficulties.

Children Born Through Reproductive Donation: A Longitudinal Study of Psychological Adjustment

BACKGROUND Parenting and childrens adjustment were examined in 30 surrogacy families, 31 egg donation families, 35 donor insemination families, and 53 natural conception families. METHODS Parenting was assessed at age 3 by a standardized interview designed to assess quality of parenting and by questionnaire measures of anxiety, depression, and marital quality. Childrens adjustment was assessed at ages 3, 7, and 10 using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). RESULTS Although children born through reproductive donation obtained SDQ scores within the normal range, surrogacy children showed higher levels of adjustment difficulties at age 7 than children conceived by gamete donation. Mothers who had kept their childs origins secret showed elevated levels of distress. However, maternal distress had a more negative impact on children who were aware of their origins. CONCLUSIONS The absence of a gestational connection to the mother may be more problematic for children than the absence of a genetic link.

Families Created Through Surrogacy Arrangements: Parent-Child Relationships in the 1st Year of Life

Findings are presented of a study of families created through surrogacy arrangements. Forty-two surrogacy families were compared with 51 egg-donation families and 80 natural-conception families on standardized interview and questionnaire measures of the psychological well-being of the parents, the quality of parent-child relationships, and infant temperament. The differences that were identified between the surrogacy families and the other family types indicated greater psychological well-being and adaptation to parenthood by mothers and fathers of children born through surrogacy arrangements than by the natural-conception parents.

Children conceived by gamete donation: psychological adjustment and mother-child relationships at age 7.

An increasing number of babies are being born using donated sperm, where the child lacks a genetic link to the father, or donated eggs, where the child lacks a genetic link to the mother. This study examined the impact of telling children about their donor conception on mother-child relationships and childrens psychological adjustment. Assessments of maternal positivity, maternal negativity, mother-child interaction, and child adjustment were administered to 32 egg donation, 36 donor insemination, and 54 natural conception families with a 7-year-old child. Although no differences were found for maternal negativity or child adjustment, mothers in nondisclosing gamete donation families showed less positive interaction than mothers in natural conception families, suggesting that families may benefit from openness about the childs genetic origins.

Families created through surrogacy: mother-child relationships and children's psychological adjustment at age 7.

Each year, an increasing number of children are born through surrogacy and thus lack a genetic and/or gestational link with their mother. This study examined the impact of surrogacy on mother-child relationships and childrens psychological adjustment. Assessments of maternal positivity, maternal negativity, mother-child interaction, and child adjustment were administered to 32 surrogacy, 32 egg donation, and 54 natural conception families with a 7-year-old child. No differences were found for maternal negativity, maternal positivity, or child adjustment, although the surrogacy and egg donation families showed less positive mother-child interaction than the natural conception families. The findings suggest that both surrogacy and egg donation families function well in the early school years.

'Mom by choice, single by life's circumstance...' Findings from a large scale survey of the experiences of single mothers by choice

There has been a rise in recent years in the number of women choosing to have a child without the involvement of a partner. These women, often referred to as ‘single mothers by choice’ or ‘choice mothers’ differ from single mothers who find themselves parenting alone following divorce or separation. The present study collected data on the motivations and experiences of 291 single mothers by choice using online questionnaires. The findings showed that women often sought advice from others and made practical changes before becoming choice mothers. The most common method used to have a child was sperm donation with most opting for an anonymous donor. The majority felt that it was important for their child to have a male role model, and most ensured that their child had a male figure in their lives. Many choice mothers expressed some concern about their child of growing up without a father, although this did not necessarily mean that they wished to form a relationship in the future. Single mothers by choice are a distinct group of single mothers and more detailed studies are required to focus on issues that are of most relevance to them.

Surrogate mothers 10 years on: a longitudinal study of psychological well-being and relationships with the parents and child

STUDY QUESTION How do the psychological health and experiences of surrogate mothers change from 1 year to 10 years following the birth of the surrogacy child? SUMMARY ANSWER The psychological well-being of surrogate mothers did not change 10 years following the birth, with all remaining positive about the surrogacy arrangement and the majority continuing to report good mental health. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Studies have found that surrogates may find the weeks following the birth difficult, but do not experience psychological problems 6 months or 1 year later. Research has also shown that surrogates can form close relationships with the intended parents during the pregnancy which may continue after the birth. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION This study used a prospective longitudinal design, in which 20 surrogates were seen at two time points: 1 year following the birth of the surrogacy child and 10 years later. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS The 20 surrogates (representing 59% of the original sample) participated in a semi-structured interview and completed self-report questionnaires. Eleven surrogates were gestational carriers and nine surrogates had used their own oocyte (genetic surrogacy). Four were previously known to the intended parents and 16 were previously not known. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE Ten years following the birth of the surrogacy child, surrogate mothers scored within the normal range for self-esteem and did not show signs of depression as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory. Marital quality remained positive over time. All surrogates reported that their expectations of their relationship with the intended parents had been either met or exceeded and most reported positive feelings towards the child. In terms of expectations for the future, most surrogates reported that they would like to maintain contact or would be available to the child if the child wished to contact them. None expressed regrets about their involvement in surrogacy. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION The sample size of this study was small and the women may not be representative of all surrogates. Therefore the extent to which these findings can be generalized is not known. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS Contrary to concerns about the potentially negative long-term effect of surrogacy, the findings suggest that surrogacy can be a positive experience for some women at least. These findings are important for policy and practice of surrogacy around the world.

Parent–child relationships and the psychological well-being of 18-year-old adolescents conceived by in vitro fertilisation

This article presents the findings of the first study to have followed up children conceived by in vitro fertilisation (IVF) to late adolescence. As close as possible to their eighteenth birthday, standardised interviews and questionnaires were administered to 26 adolescents conceived by IVF and comparison groups of 27 adolescents adopted in infancy and 56 adolescents conceived naturally by previously infertile parents. IVF adolescents were found to have good relationships with their parents that did not differ from those of adopted and natural conception adolescents. At age 18, no young person was distressed about having been conceived by IVF. The findings of this study indicate that as test-tube babies approach adulthood, they are generally functioning well.

The role of age of disclosure of biological origins in the psychological wellbeing of adolescents conceived by reproductive donation: a longitudinal study from age 1 to age 14

Background The question of whether children should be told of their biological origins is one of the most controversial issues regarding the birth of children through donated eggs, sperm, embryos or surrogacy. Methods In the sixth phase of this longitudinal study when the children were aged 14 years, family relationships and adolescent adjustment were examined in 87 families created through reproductive donation and 54 natural conception families. The quality of family relationships was assessed by standardised interview with mothers and by standardised questionnaires and an observational measure with mothers and adolescents. Adolescent adjustment was assessed using standardised questionnaires. Systematic information on whether and when parents had told children about their biological origins was obtained at earlier phases of the study. Results There were no overall differences between disclosing families and either nondisclosing or natural conception families. However, within the disclosing families, more positive family relationships and higher levels of adolescent wellbeing were found for adolescents who had been told about their biological origins before age 7. Conclusions The earlier children born through reproductive donation are told about their biological origins, the more positive are the outcomes in terms of the quality of family relationships and psychological wellbeing at adolescence.

A Longitudinal Study of Families Formed Through Reproductive Donation: Parent-Adolescent Relationships and Adolescent Adjustment at Age 14

The aim of the 6th phase of this longitudinal study was to establish whether children born through assisted reproduction involving reproductive donation were at risk for psychological problems following the transition to adolescence at age 14 and, if so, to examine the nature of these problems and the mechanisms involved. Eighty-seven families formed through reproductive donation, including 32 donor insemination families, 27 egg donation families, and 28 surrogacy families, were compared with 54 natural conception families. Standardized interviews, questionnaires, and observational assessments of the quality of parent-adolescent relationships and adolescent adjustment were administered to mothers, adolescents, and teachers. The mothers in surrogacy families showed less negative parenting and reported greater acceptance of their adolescent children and fewer problems in family relationships as a whole compared with gamete donation mothers. In addition, less positive relationships were found between mothers and adolescents in egg donation families than in donor insemination families as rated by both mothers and adolescents. There were no differences between family types for the adolescents themselves in terms of adjustment problems, psychological well-being, and self-esteem. Longitudinal analyses showed no differences between family types in negative parenting from age 7 to age 14, and a weaker association between negative parenting and adjustment difficulties for gamete donation than natural conception and surrogacy families. The findings suggest that the absence of a genetic link between mothers and their children is associated with less positive mother-adolescent relationships whereas the absence of a gestational link does not have an adverse effect.