Tabitha Freeman

Psychoanalytic Concepts of Fatherhood: Patriarchal Paradoxes and the Presence of an Absent Authority

This essay presents a critical examination of the patriarchal assumptions that have shaped psychoanalytic concepts of fatherhood since the inception of this discipline. Patriarchy is founded upon the symbolic power of the father and yet there has been a long-standing cultural silence shrouding mens parental roles and relationships in experiential terms. The subsequent tension between the symbolic presence and substantive absence of fathers is built into the heart of orthodox psychoanalytic theory, being enshrined in Freuds foundational concept of the Oedipus complex. In particular, the Oedipus complex is premised upon the fathers absence from the pre-oedipal sphere, perpetuating an image of paternal authority legitimated by mens distance from, and difference to, the naturalized domain of mother-child relations. The simultaneous exaltation of paternal power and marginalization of fathers from the fabric of family life is reproduced across the central schools of psychoanalytic thought, as exemplified by the work of Klein and Lacan. At the core of this discussion is a critical analysis of key sites of silence and contradiction in Freuds account of the Oedipus complex that are attributed to the negation of paternal intimacy in early infant relationships. Most notably, the oedipal resolution is seen to lie at the source of deep psychological tensions within male and female gender identities that conform to patriarchal definitions of “normal” adult heterosexuality. In recent years, paternal absence has been problematized in theoretical, empirical, and political terms, with a weight of therapeutic observation, feminist critique, and cultural commentary beckoning a fundamental reassessment of psychoanalytic concepts of fatherhood. I argue that the corresponding turn toward more positive representations of father-child relationships signifies a radical critique of the paradoxes of patriarchy that has yet to be incorporated into psychoanalytic theory. By confronting the conceptual limits of the authority of the absent father, this discussion illuminates a theoretical vacuum within mainstream psychoanalytic thought in which to usher in more realistic conceptions of the fathering experience.

Single mothers by choice: Mother-child relationships and children's psychological adjustment.

Fifty-one solo mother families were compared with 52 two-parent families all with a 4–9-year-old child conceived by donor insemination. Standardized interview, observational and questionnaire measures of maternal wellbeing, mother–child relationships and child adjustment were administered to mothers, children and teachers. There were no differences in parenting quality between family types apart from lower mother–child conflict in solo mother families. Neither were there differences in child adjustment. Perceived financial difficulties, child’s gender, and parenting stress were associated with children’s adjustment problems in both family types. The findings suggest that solo motherhood, in itself, does not result in psychological problems for children.

Gamete donation, information sharing and the best interests of the child: an overview of the psychosocial evidence

This paper overviews key empirical findings from social science research regarding the impact of gamete donation on child wellbeing. In particular, the paper addresses current regulatory debates concerning information sharing and the best interests of the child by considering psychosocial aspects of telling—or not telling—children about their donor conception and the identity of their donor. The paper identifies three core sets of empirical, ethical and policy concerns underpinning these debates relating to (i) the psychosocial impact of gamete donation per se on child wellbeing, (ii) the psychosocial impact of parental disclosure decisions on child wellbeing, and (iii) the psychosocial implications of donor identification for donor-conceived offspring. The paper illustrates how these concerns are framed by ideas about the significance—or not—of ‘genetic relatedness’; ideas which have come to the fore in contemporary discussions about the potential consequences of donor-conceived individuals gaining access to their donor’s identity. By drawing together research findings that may be pertinent to the regulation of gamete donation and information sharing, a further aim of this paper is to explore the potential use and misuse of empirical ‘evidence’ in ethical and policy debates. Whilst this paper starts from the premise that psychosocial data has a vital role in grounding normative discussions, it seeks to contribute to this dialogue by highlighting both the value and limitations of social science research. In particular, the paper argues for a cautious approach to applying psychosocial evidence to ethical issues that is sensitive to the caveats and nuances of research findings and the changing cultural and regulatory context.

Psychological assessment of mothers and their assisted reproduction triplets at age 3 years

The aim of this study was to examine the psychological well-being of mothers and the psychological development of their 3-year-old triplet children conceived by in-vitro fertilization (IVF)/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Comparisons were carried out between a sample of 10 families with IVF/ICSI triplets and matched groups of 15 families with IVF/ICSI twins and 30 families with IVF/ICSI singletons. The families were recruited from Follow-Up, a national organization in France that was established to study children conceived by assisted reproduction. Standardized measures of the mothers emotional well-being and of the childrens psychological development were administered. Mothers with a multiple birth were found to experience greater difficulties in parenting than mothers of singletons, with no differences between mothers of triplets and mothers of twins. Regarding the children, there were no differences in emotional or behavioural problems between triplets, twins and singletons. However, the triplets and twins showed a delay in some aspects of language development in comparison with the singleton children.

Loving Fathers or Deadbeat Dads: The Crisis of Fatherhood in Popular Culture

During the last few decades, fatherhood has come under increasing public scrutiny, giving rise to deep confusion over the role of men in family life today. Nowhere is this clearer than in contemporary popular culture, where a proliferation of conflicting representations of fathers perpetuate a vivid sense of crisis in the paternal role. The popular press directly feeds into widespread moral panic about absent fathers, decrying the crisis in traditional values epitomized by ‘fatherless families’. At the same time, it is commonly assumed that fathers are becoming more intimately involved in childcare, and an intense media focus on men’s relationships with their children works to promote this ideal of the ‘new’, nurturing father. This image of the loving father stands at odds with persistent fears concerning male violence and sexual abuse. Given this confused cultural climate, it is no wonder that popular culture has become swamped with clashing images of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ fathers (Furstenberg 1988). Indeed, as traditional ideas about fatherhood come under challenge and social pressures mount towards enhancing men’s involvement in family life, popular culture has become a central arena for playing out emerging tensions within cultural constructions of the father’s role and for reinforcing and undermining dominant expectations around what good fathering involves.

Adolescents Conceived through Donor Insemination in Mother-Headed Families: A Qualitative Study of Motivations and Experiences of Contacting and Meeting Same-donor Offspring

This study interviewed adolescents conceived using sperm donation to examine their experiences of contacting and meeting ‘same‐donor offspring’ (i.e. donor‐conceived offspring raised in different families who share the same donor), their motivations for this contact, and how they make meaning of these relationships. This in‐depth qualitative study involved semi‐structured interviews with 23 young people aged 12–19 years (mean = 14 years). Interviewees were motivated by curiosity about their biological relations and by wanting to extend their family. Contact with same‐donor offspring was described as being either normal/neutral or as a unique experience that was integrated into their identity. This study highlights the importance of contact between same donor offspring, particularly during adolescence, a developmental stage associated with identity formation. The findings have important policy implications as they suggest that donor‐conceived individuals may benefit from contact with others conceived using the same donor prior to the age of 18 years.

Being an identity-release donor: a qualitative study exploring the motivations, experiences and future expectations of current UK egg donors

Abstract The objective of this study was to examine the motivations, experiences and future expectations of identity-release egg donors in the UK following the removal of donor anonymity and the increase in financial compensation for egg donation. This exploratory, in-depth qualitative study comprised semi-structured interviews with 11 women who had attended an egg donation screening appointment at a UK clinic during a four-month period in 2014. Interviews were conducted two to six weeks after the woman had donated or had withdrawn/been rejected from the donation process. Participants’ primary motivation for donating was to help infertile women have their ‘own child’, and the recent increase in financial compensation did not seem to play a significant role in their decision. All were happy to be identifiable and contacted by children born as a result of their donation. However, some were hesitant about providing non-identifying information about themselves for these offspring and wished for further information about the recipient(s) of their eggs and the outcome of their donation. Whilst this study was limited due to the small sample size, it is the first study of UK egg donors following the rise in donor compensation and suggests that other strategies may be more effective in increasing donor numbers.

Why search for a sperm donor online? The experiences of women searching for and contacting sperm donors on the internet

Abstract Whilst studies have examined the experiences of women who use clinic donors, to date there has been limited research investigating women’s motivations and experiences of searching for a sperm donor online. A total of 429 women looking for a sperm donor on Pride Angel (a website that facilitates contact between donors and recipients) completed an online survey. Fifty-eight percent (249) saw advantages of obtaining donated sperm online with the most common advantage reported as being able to connect with and meet the donor (n = 50 (24%)). A third (n = 157 (37%)) of the participants gave disadvantages, the most common reported was encountering ‘dishonest donors’ (n = 63 (40%)). Most recipients (n = 181 (61%)) wanted the donor to be ‘just a donor’ (i.e. to provide sperm and have no further contact). Whilst it was important for recipients to know the identity of the donor, some did not see this as important for the child and thus the level of information that parents have about the donor, and that which the child has, can differ. Finding a donor online blurs the distinction between categories of ‘anonymous’, ‘known’ and ‘identity release’ donations. Whilst the survey had a large sample size, the representativeness of the sample is not known.