Susan Krauss Whitbourne

Psychosocial development in adulthood: A 22-year sequential study.

Data supporting the notion of adult personality stability are challenged by the present findings, in which developmental change was demonstrated using the Eriksonian-stage-based Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD; Constantinople, 1969). A sequential design over the ages 20-42 was used on 2 cohorts of college students and alumni originally tested in 1966 and 1976-1977 (ns in 1988 = 99 and 83, respectively), and a 3rd cohort of college students in 1988-1989 (n = 292). Results of longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential analyses challenged ideas about personality stability, with evidence of increasingly favorable resolutions of the early Eriksonian psychosocial stages up through the oldest age studied. There was evidence of a trend over the past decade toward less favorable resolution of ego integrity versus despair. The findings were interpreted in terms of developmental change processes during the adult years interacting with culturally based environmental effects on psychosocial development.

THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTION AND EXPERIENCE ON COLLEGE STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD THE ELDERLY

The goal of this study was to evaluate a program designed to promote attitude change among undergraduates, whose views of the elderly have traditionally been mixed. The subjects were college students enrolled in a psychology of aging class. They completed measures pertaining to knowledge of the aging process and attitudes toward the elderly during the first week of class and then again during the last week. In addition, a subgroup of the class who volunteered weekly with the elderly were compared with other subgroups who had limited or no contact with older adults. These volunteers were required to document their experiences in journals, which were then examined to provide qualitative data. Finally, a control group was included in an effort to control for positive bias in the aging class. A 2 (time) x 3 (group) multiple analysis of variance with repeated measures on the first factor was conducted on these data. There was a significant effect of time, F (1,94) = 20.47, p < .001. Students’ knowledge about a...

Identity Processes in Adulthood: Theoretical and Methodological Challenges

The study of identity development in adulthood presents a number of fascinating theoretical challenges, including the relationship of identity to physical, cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. Equally challenging is the measurement of identity processes throughout the adult years. In this article, we discuss a theoretical model that relates identity to experiences in adulthood and incorporates the processes of identity assimilation, identity accommodation, and identity balance. We present data examining the relationship between the Identity and Experiences Scale (IES), a 33-item self-report rating scale, and the Defense Mechanisms Inventory (Gleser & Ihilevich, 1969). Relationships of identity processes to hypothesized personality constructs, gender, and age are discussed and examined as a basis for elaborating more fully on the model and its measurement.

Risky business: Is there an association between casual sex and mental health among emerging adults?

A multiethnic sample of single, heterosexual, emerging-adult college students (N = 3,907) ages 18 to 25, from 30 institutions across the United States, participated in a study about identity, culture, psychological well-being, and risky behaviors. Given ongoing debates about the connection between casual sex and psychological adjustment, in the current study we assessed the cross-sectional association of participation in casual sex with psychological well-being and distress. A greater proportion of men (18.6%) compared to women (7.4%) reported having had casual sex in the month prior to assessment. Structural equation modeling indicated that casual sex was negatively associated with well-being (ß = .20, p < .001) and positively associated with psychological distress (ß = .16, p < .001). Gender did not moderate these associations. For emerging-adult college students, engaging in casual sex may elevate risk for negative psychological outcomes.

Openness to experience, identity flexibility, and life change in adults.

The personality trait of openness to experience was used to predict identity flexibility, the tendency of adults to evaluate alternative identity commitments in the area of family and work. Openness to experience was also used as an independent variable to predict the occurrence of actual life change 12 months after identity flexibility was ascertained. A sample of 57 adults (34 women and 23 men) ranging in age from 24 to 61 (M = 41 years) was tested twice over the 12-month period. Age and openness to experience significantly predicted identity flexibility, whereas only years of education predicted life change. Identity flexibility was significantly related to life change. It was concluded that both personality and perceived and actual social resources are predictors of flexibility and life change in adulthood.

The Aging Self in a Cultural Context: The Relation of Conceptions of Aging to Identity Processes and Self-Esteem in the United States and the Netherlands

OBJECTIVES To study the aging self, that is, conceptions of ones own aging process, in relation to identity processes and self-esteem in the United States and the Netherlands. As the liberal American system has a stronger emphasis on individual responsibility and youthfulness than the social-democratic Dutch system, we expect that youthful and positive perceptions of ones own aging process are more important in the United States than in the Netherlands. METHODS Three hundred and nineteen American and 235 Dutch persons between 40 and 85 years participated in the study. A single question on age identity and the Personal Experience of Aging Scale measured aspects of the aging self. The Identity and Experiences Scale measured identity processes and Rosenbergs scale measured self-esteem. RESULTS A youthful age identity and more positive personal experiences of aging were related to identity processes and self-esteem. These conceptions of ones own aging process also mediate the relation between identity processes and self-esteem. This mediating effect is stronger in the United States than in the Netherlands. DISCUSSION As expected, the self-enhancing function of youthful and positive aging perceptions is stronger in the liberal American system than in the social-democratic Dutch welfare system. The aging self should therefore be studied in its cultural context.

American identity revisited: The relation between national, ethnic, and personal identity in a multiethnic sample of emerging adults.

The present mixed-methods study investigated meanings and affective valences ascribed to “American identity” and the ways in which these meanings and valences relate to ethnic and personal identity. The data were collected from 2004 to 2006 and used a multiethnic sample of 287 college students residing in Miami, Florida. Subjective meanings of American identity were assessed using four qualitative questions that were coded thematically: characteristics that define the typical American, characteristics that describe ways in which one is American, qualities that make one something other than American, and the degree to which one feels American. Results suggested many similarities, along with some differences, across ethnic groups. In terms of how American one feels, ethnic minorities felt less American than Whites and believed that, regardless of their citizenship, they are not perceived as American. Responses suggested that participants believed that to be American, one must sacrifice a connection to family and community. Continuing to examine the relationship between national, ethnic, and personal identity will help us better understand how emerging adults make sense of their social world and manage difficult choices about their identities.

The Developing Self in Midlife

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the developing self in midlife. A starting point for examining the development of the self in adulthood is a model in which identity is theorized to form an organizing schema through which the individuals experiences are interpreted. Piagetian-like processes of identity assimilation and identity accommodation are theorized to form the basis for the relationship between the individual and experiences in adulthood. Individuals can be differentiated according to the assimilative identity style, the accommodative identity style, or the balanced identity style. Each of the identity styles has associated with it proposed approaches to life experiences in middle adulthood and characteristic problematic patterns of behavior that cause the individual to seek psychotherapy or counseling. Adding to the focus on identity are social-cognitive models of the self, including the “life-span construct” and “possible selves.” The impact of context on identity development includes family relationships, experiences at work, historical and social phenomena, and the social and political climate, factors that vary further by cohort or period. Reciprocal influences must also be considered in any discussion of the development of the self in midlife. Through an interdisciplinary perspective that incorporates a view of the middle years in terms of the life course as a whole, conceptualizations of adult development will gain in depth and richness to provide an exciting new understanding of the self in midlife.

Acculturation and well-being among college students from immigrant families

OBJECTIVE The present study was designed to ascertain the associations between acculturation and well-being in first-generation and second-generation immigrant college students. Acculturation was operationalized as a multidimensional construct comprised of heritage and American cultural practices, values (individualism and collectivism), and identifications, and well-being was operationalized in terms of subjective, psychological, and eudaimonic components. METHOD Participants were 2,774 first-generation and second-generation immigrant students (70% women), from 6 ethnic groups and from 30 colleges and universities around the United States. Participants completed measures of heritage and American cultural practices, values, and identifications, as well as of subjective, psychological, and eudaimonic well-being. RESULTS Findings indicated that individualistic values were positively related to psychological and eudaimonic well-being, and positively, although somewhat less strongly, linked with subjective well-being. American and heritage identifications were both modestly related to psychological and eudaimonic well-being. These findings were consistent across gender, immigrant generation (first versus second), and ethnicity. CONCLUSIONS Psychological and eudaimonic well-being appear to be inherently individualistic conceptions of happiness, and endorsement of individualistic values appears linked with these forms of well-being. Attachments to a cultural group-the United States, ones country of origin, or both-appear to promote psychological and eudaimonic well-being as well. The present findings suggest that similar strategies can be used to promote well-being for both male and female students, for students from various ethnic backgrounds, and for both first-generation and second-generation immigrant students.

FORMATIVE REFLECTIONS ON SERVICE-LEARNING IN A COURSE ON THE PSYCHOLOGY OF AGING

Service-learning is an ideal teaching approach to use in courses on the psychology of aging because it allows experiential education to be actively integrated with classroom instruction. This article describes the results of adding a service-learning option to a lecture course on the psychology of aging. For this course, service-learning took place at local nursing homes, area retirement communities, and the local community center, which houses an activity program for older adults. Each student was required to complete 30 hr community service-learning during the semester, maintain a journal, write a summary paper, join a reflection group, and participate in a group presentation. Students were involved in a wide range of activities, from assisting with a hot lunch program to spending time talking with nursing home residents. Evaluation of the effectiveness of this approach was established by using open-ended student evaluations that were completed at the end of the semester. Data were gathered over 2 years...Service-learning is an ideal teaching approach to use in courses on the psychology of aging because it allows experiential education to be actively integrated with classroom instruction. This article describes the results of adding a service-learning option to a lecture course on the psychology of aging. For this course, service-learning took place at local nursing homes, area retirement communities, and the local community center, which houses an activity program for older adults. Each student was required to complete 30 hr community service-learning during the semester, maintain a journal, write a summary paper, join a reflection group, and participate in a group presentation. Students were involved in a wide range of activities, from assisting with a hot lunch program to spending time talking with nursing home residents. Evaluation of the effectiveness of this approach was established by using open-ended student evaluations that were completed at the end of the semester. Data were gathered over 2 years from the portion of the class (approximately one third) each semester) who chose to complete a one-credit service-learning experience. The service-learning component significantly enhanced the course experience for the students, instructor, graduate and undergraduate teaching assistants, and facilities involved. Overall, the majority of students affirmed that their participation in the service-learning project related well to the course, and facility responses to student service-learning participants were overwhelmingly positive.