Susanna Curtin

Wildlife tourism: the intangible, psychological benefits of human–wildlife encounters

This article presents the results of an ethnographic study of wildlife tourists. The findings reveal the commonalities and complexities of the wildlife experience during wildlife encounters at home and while on holiday. Natures design, performance and immense biodiversity initiate an emotional response of awe, wonder and privilege that unlocks ecocentric and anthropomorphic connections to wild animals and a feeling that is ‘beyond words’. There is time to stand and stare, and contemplate. Nature and wildlife are not only spatial events but also temporal ones. In this liminal, embodied space of a wildlife encounter, socially constructed modern fast time dissipates and is replaced by stillness and natures time whereby participants are totally absorbed in the spectacle. All thought and action is concentrated on the moment. This provokes a deep sense of well-being that transcends the initial encounter leading to spiritual fulfilment and psychological health benefits. The implications of this research has relevance to environmental conservation particularly the recognition that conserving habitats and wildlife has an intrinsic connection to the future well-being of the human population who are part of the ecosystem and not separate from it.

Nature, Wild Animals and Tourism: An Experiential View

An experiential view of wildlife tourism concerns the emotional, psychological and physical benefits of taking a wildlife holiday, and provides a different and important understanding of a significant and growing market. Key authors in this field of tourism studies agree that the nature of the tourist experience is a major research priority for the ultimate sustainable management of wildlife-based tourism attractions and destinations. What are the common attributes of a wildlife tourism experience? How does such an experience contribute to the overall psychological well-being of the visitor and what implications might this have for wildlife and wildlife operators? The purpose of this paper is to review the experiential aspects of wildlife tourism consumption that have been revealed to date. It highlights the ethnocentric and anthropomorphic attraction of animals; the human desire to interact with and interpret animal behaviour, and how urbanisation has had a profound affect on our psychological and physical relationship with nature. Particular attention is given to the notions of place, existential space, authenticity and anthropomorphosis. Understanding such concepts in relation to wildlife tourism implies a new phenomenological framework for research to further explore the experiences of wildlife tourists.

Sustainable destination development: the Tour Operator perspective.

Tourism has had a profound and irreversible effect on many destination areas. As the demand for new destinations increases, there is an unrelenting pressure for development in order to satisfy the growth of this complex, pervasive industry. This article presents the results of research undertaken into business attitudes towards sustainable tourism development by the British Federation of Tour Operators and Association of Independent Tour Operators members. The price-cutting competition’ of undifferentiated mass market operators continues to be a threat to sustainable destination development. Furthermore, the 1992 EC Directive on Package Travel is preventing operators from using local suppliers, which is a fundamental principle of sustainability. Copyright

Identity and tourism mobility: an exploration of the attitude–behaviour gap

This paper explores the attitude–behaviour gap from an identity perspective in order to better understand why tourists act sustainably at “home” but not when “away”. The majority of tourism-related CO2 emissions stems from transport. Behavioural change is a possible way to reduce those emissions. However, research indicates that instigating behavioural change within tourism is problematic, because of the attitude–behaviour gap. Studies suggest that understanding the role of identity and tourism mobility could explain this gap; this paper researches that idea, using a narrative approach to explore the travel life histories of 24 participants, with a second interview to examine how interviewees viewed their tourism activity in the light of environmental debates and concerns. Data were analysed using thematic and narrative-based dialogic/performance approaches. The paper reveals how a need for personal identity can influence travel behaviour and that identity plays a significant role in travel decisions, sometimes overriding cost and environmental issues. The power of social identity is explored, noting increasingly powerful global VFR networks, along with the search for future selves, the need for personal differentiation and issues of multiple identities. Suggestions are made for ways to use identity research into policies seeking to achieve behavioural change.

British Wildlife Tourism Operators: Current Issues and Typologies

The UK wildlife outbound tourism sector is a relatively uncharted area of academic study both in terms of demand and supply. The purpose of this paper is first, to move towards a typology of British wildlife tour operators and their favoured destinations, and secondly, to introduce the relationship between satisfying the consumer and sustainable product/destination management. A systematic review of wildlife tourism brochures and in-depth interviews with key stakeholders indicate a gradual shift from a specialised market offering high involvement in a particular species (usually birds) to a more general market looking for an interesting, but pleasant and relaxing holiday based around a general interest in nature and the environment. Both markets coexist in a complex product and tourist spectrum with neither market being entirely inclusive. Instead there is a degree of movement between one and the other which has led to operators offering a wider range of products to suit the hard-core expert and the novice enthusiast. However, product development and satisfying the consumer implies some difficult management dilemmas such as the use of tape recordings, food provisioning and the constant search for new destinations to offer experienced tourists something different.

Tourism and grey seals in south Devon: management strategies, voluntary controls and tourists’ perceptions of disturbance

Although grey seals are relatively common in Britain, their numbers elsewhere are believed to be decreasing, and some populations in Europe are listed as endangered by the IUCN. This case study focuses on the impacts of seal tourism on a colony of seals on the South Devon coast in the United Kingdom, the effectiveness of current management policies and tourists’ perceptions of the voluntary controls adhered to by tour operators. To monitor impacts, covert observations of the site were undertaken on 60 designated survey days in the summer of 2006, while a survey of tourists taking part in wildlife cruises to the site was conducted during the same period. The observations found that the voluntary codes had reduced disturbance from operators; however, there were still disturbances, mainly from private vessels. The results of the survey showed that tourists were aware of their potential impacts upon the wildlife, and were generally supportive of the voluntary codes in place. Therefore if an honest explanation and interpretation of the potential impacts of seal tourism are provided, it may encourage a protectionist predisposition in wildlife tourists and render the compliance of voluntary codes a highly satisfactory tourist experience rather than a negative one.

Understanding the influence of interpersonal relationships on identity and tourism travel

Travel plays a part in shaping the perception of self through experiences of other people and places. “Finding yourself” through travel has been widely discussed in the tourism literature; however, relatively little has been documented about how identity can influence an individuals travel choices. This paper investigates the role of interpersonal relationships in shaping identity and influencing tourism mobility. To gain insight into identity, there must be an understanding of the narratives used to create and affirm identities. A narrative interview method was used with 22 participants. The findings demonstrate how interpersonal relationships shape the self and identity which can have an impact on a tourists travel behaviour. The analysis explores the role played by visiting friends and relatives and the impact on identity and travel. It also addresses how travel is used to enhance relationships through physical and emotional connectedness. This can lead to people undertaking travel they do not desire.

Wildlife Tourism: Reconnecting People with Nature

Wildlife tourism is an important platform to investigate the relationship between people and nature. Given that wildlife destinations are likely to receive higher tourism demand from new emerging economies, this article considers the wider emotional and psychological implications of wildlife watching. The growing significance of this tourist activity is a potential reawakening of a deeper ecological sub-consciousness brought about by a society that is disconnected from nature. Particular attention is given to the importance of experiencing nature first hand, the psychological benefits, and the emotional responses that may engender a relationship of care. This is good for both the human spirit and for nature conservation.

Understanding tourist encounters with nature: a thematic framework.

This paper presents a thematic framework that simplifies and explains the complexity of tourist encounters with nature. The research combines qualitative data, derived from questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews, field journals and personal observations, of wildlife encounters in Spain and Mexico and encounters with tropical forest in Australia. The data reveal that embodied tourists encounter nature in a multisensory manner, although they privilege visual perceptions of the natural world. There are clear differences in the emotional significance of encounters, with visitors negotiating individual yet diverse relations with their surrounding environment, mediated by in situ social interactions. Wildlife tourists often perform ritualised roles, directed by tour guides, causing some to question the collective performances of prescribed mobilities. Rainforest tourists, by contrast, are more unbounded in their performances. It is suggested that visitors on guided tours should be given time to experience the wonders of the environment at their own pace, facilitating the achievement of ‘higher order’ needs. The theoretical framework presented in the paper facilitates an exploration of the diversity of connections between people and nature and the myriad ways in which such relationships are formed, interpreted and afforded relevance. The framework is not definitive, but context-specific, serving to inform future understanding.

Human Dimensions of Wildlife Gardening: Its Development, Controversies and Psychological Benefits

A prevalent social discourse concerning climate change, loss of biodiversity and the importance of nature to human health currently dominates news articles, television programmes and political comment. These anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment question humankind’s predominant relationship with nature; particularly in western developed cultures where people are usually perceived as separate from nature rather than part of it. Whilst the world’s declining iconic species catch media attention, it is often local and indigenous wildlife that become the focus of communities at a local level. As a result, conservation organisation membership has increased over the last 5 years alongside a strong retail sector which encourages people to purchase, for example, wild bird food, bird feeders and nest boxes. As interest in feeding the wild birds that visit gardens has increased, so too has an appreciation of the need to conserve the wider aspects of the ecosystem such as plants, insects and amphibians which attract and support the birds and mammals that have become more welcome visitors to our gardens. There is also increasing recognition of the health and psychological benefits that wildlife gardening can bring to individuals and communities. Many prominent garden attractions and horticultural shows in England and throughout the world have developed a wild theme into their garden design which has captured the imagination of garden visitors who wish to marry their love of horticulture with their interest in wildlife. Such naturalistic and wild flower planting has thus become a more common element of home garden design reflected in the retail sector, media programmes and garden magazines and books.