Tasir S. Per

Salicylic acid-induced abiotic stress tolerance and underlying mechanisms in plants

Abiotic stresses (such as metals/metalloids, salinity, ozone, UV-B radiation, extreme temperatures, and drought) are among the most challenging threats to agricultural system and economic yield of crop plants. These stresses (in isolation and/or combination) induce numerous adverse effects in plants, impair biochemical/physiological and molecular processes, and eventually cause severe reductions in plant growth, development and overall productivity. Phytohormones have been recognized as a strong tool for sustainably alleviating adverse effects of abiotic stresses in crop plants. In particular, the significance of salicylic acid (SA) has been increasingly recognized in improved plant abiotic stress-tolerance via SA-mediated control of major plant-metabolic processes. However, the basic biochemical/physiological and molecular mechanisms that potentially underpin SA-induced plant-tolerance to major abiotic stresses remain least discussed. Based on recent reports, this paper: (a) overviews historical background and biosynthesis of SA under both optimal and stressful environments in plants; (b) critically appraises the role of SA in plants exposed to major abiotic stresses; (c) cross-talks potential mechanisms potentially governing SA-induced plant abiotic stress-tolerance; and finally (d) briefly highlights major aspects so far unexplored in the current context.

Selenium and sulfur influence ethylene formation and alleviate cadmium-induced oxidative stress by improving proline and glutathione production in wheat.

We have studied the influence of selenium (Se) and sulfur (S) in the protection of photosynthetic capacity of wheat (Triticum aestivum) against cadmium (Cd) stress. The involvement of ethylene and its interaction with proline and antioxidant metabolism in the tolerance of plants to Cd stress was evaluated. Application of Se or S alleviated Cd-induced oxidative stress by increasing proline accumulation as a result of increased activity of glutamyl kinase (GK) and decreased activity of proline oxidase (PROX). These nutrients also induced the activity of ATP-sulfurylase and serine acetyl transferase and the content of cysteine (Cys), a precursor for the synthesis of both reduced glutathione (GSH) and ethylene. Further, application of Se and S to plants under Cd stress reduced ethylene level and increased the activity of glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX), reduced oxidative stress and improved photosynthesis and growth. The involvement of ethylene in Se and S-mediated alleviation of Cd stress was substantiated with the use of ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG). The use of AVG reversed the effects of Se and S on ethylene, content of proline and GSH and photosynthesis. The results suggested that Se and S both reversed Cd-induced oxidative stress by regulating ethylene formation, proline and GSH metabolism. Thus, Se or S-induced regulatory interaction between ethylene and proline and GSH metabolism may be used for the reversal of Cd-induced oxidative stress.

Salicylic acid alleviates adverse effects of heat stress on photosynthesis through changes in proline production and ethylene formation

We investigated the potential of salicylic acid (SA) in alleviating the adverse effects of heat stress on photosynthesis in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cv WH 711. Activity of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco), photosynthetic-nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), and net photosynthesis decreased in plants subjected to heat stress (40°C for 6 h), but proline metabolism increased. SA treatment (0.5 mM) alleviated heat stress by increasing proline production through the increase in γ-glutamyl kinase (GK) and decrease in proline oxidase (PROX) activity, resulting in promotion of osmotic potential and water potential necessary for maintaining photosynthetic activity. Together with this, SA treatment restricted the ethylene formation in heat-stressed plants to optimal range by inhibiting activity of 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase (ACS). This resulted in improved proline metabolism, N assimilation and photosynthesis. The results suggest that SA interacts with proline metabolism and ethylene formation to alleviate the adverse effects of heat stress on photosynthesis in wheat.

Too much is bad—an appraisal of phytotoxicity of elevated plant-beneficial heavy metal ions

Heavy metal ions such as cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) are considered essential/beneficial for optimal plant growth, development, and productivity. However, these ions readily impact functions of many enzymes and proteins, halt metabolism, and exhibit phytotoxicity at supra-optimum supply. Nevertheless, the concentrations of these heavy metal ions are increasing in agricultural soils worldwide via both natural and anthropogenic sources that need immediate attention. Considering recent breakthroughs on Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn in soil–plant system, the present paper: (a) overviews the status in soils and their uptake, transport, and significance in plants; (b) critically discusses their elevated level-mediated toxicity to both plant growth/development and cell/genome; (c) briefly cross talks on the significance of potential interactions between previous plant-beneficial heavy metal ions in plants; and (d) highlights so far unexplored aspects in the current context.

Approaches in modulating proline metabolism in plants for salt and drought stress tolerance: Phytohormones, mineral nutrients and transgenics

Major abiotic stress factors such as salt and drought adversely affect important physiological processes and biochemical mechanisms and cause severe loss in crop productivity worldwide. Plants develop various strategies to stand healthy against these stress factors. The accumulation of proline (Pro) is one of the striking metabolic responses of plants to salt and drought stress. Pro biosynthesis and signalling contribute to the redox balance of cell under normal and stressful conditions. However, literature is meager on the sustainable strategies potentially fit for modulating Pro biosynthesis and production in stressed plants. Considering the recent literature, this paper in its first part overviews Pro biosynthesis and transport in plants and also briefly highlights the significance of Pro in plant responses to salt and drought stress. Secondly, this paper discusses mechanisms underlying the regulation of Pro metabolism in salt and drought-exposed plant via phytohormones, mineral nutrients and transgenic approaches. The outcome of the studies may give new opportunities in modulating Pro metabolism for improving plant tolerance to salt and drought stress and benefit sustainable agriculture.

Nitric oxide signaling and its crosstalk with other plant growth regulators in plant responses to abiotic stress

Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical molecule involved in an array of functions under physiological and adverse environmental conditions. As other free radical molecules, NO biological action depends on its cellular concentration, acting as a signal molecule when produced at low concentration or resulting in cellular damage when produced at sufficiently high levels to trigger nitro-oxidative stress. Over the last decade, significant progress has been made in characterizing NO metabolism and action mechanism, revealing that diverse biosynthetic routes can generate this free radical in plants and its action mainly occurs through posttranslational modification (nitration and S-nitrosylation) of target proteins. Intricate crosstalk networks between NO and other signaling molecules have been described involving phytohormones, other second messengers, and key transcription factors. This review will focus on our current understanding of NO interplay with phytohormones and other plant growth regulators under abiotic stress conditions.

Hydrogen Peroxide Alleviates Nickel-Inhibited Photosynthetic Responses through Increase in Use-Efficiency of Nitrogen and Sulfur, and Glutathione Production in Mustard

The response of two mustard (Brassica juncea L.) cultivars differing in photosynthetic capacity to different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or nickel (Ni) was evaluated. Further, the effect of H2O2 on photosynthetic responses of the mustard cultivars grown with or without Ni stress was studied. Application of 50 μM H2O2 increased photosynthesis and growth more prominently in high photosynthetic capacity cultivar (Varuna) than low photosynthetic capacity cultivar (RH30) grown without Ni stress. The H2O2 application also resulted in alleviation of photosynthetic inhibition induced by 200 mg Ni kg-1 soil through increased photosynthetic nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE), sulfur-use efficiency (SUE), and glutathione (GSH) reduced production together with decreased lipid peroxidation and electrolyte leakage in both the cultivars. However, the effect of H2O2 was more pronounced in Varuna than RH30. The greater increase in photosynthetic-NUE and SUE and GSH production with H2O2 in Varuna resulted from higher increase in activity of nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) assimilation enzymes, nitrate reductase and ATP-sulfurylase, respectively resulting in enhanced N and S assimilation. The increased N and S content contributed to the higher activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase under Ni stress. Application of H2O2 also regulated PS II activity and stomatal movement under Ni stress for maintaining higher photosynthetic potential in Varuna. Thus, H2O2 may be considered as a potential signaling molecule for augmenting photosynthetic potential of mustard plants under optimal and Ni stress conditions. It alleviates Ni stress through the regulation of stomatal and non-stomotal limitations, and photosynthetic-NUE and -SUE and GSH production.

Nitric Oxide Alleviates Salt Stress Inhibited Photosynthetic Performance by Interacting with Sulfur Assimilation in Mustard.

The role of nitric oxide (NO) and sulfur (S) on stomatal responses and photosynthetic performance was studied in mustard (Brassica juncea L.) in presence or absence of salt stress. The combined application of 100 μM NO (as sodium nitroprusside) and 200 mg S kg−1 soil (S) more prominently influenced stomatal behavior, photosynthetic and growth performance both in the absence and presence of salt stress. The chloroplasts from salt-stressed plants had disorganized chloroplast thylakoids, but combined application of NO and S resulted in well-developed chloroplast thylakoids and properly stacked grana. The leaves from plants receiving NO plus S exhibited lower superoxide ion accumulation under salt stress than the plants receiving NO or S. These plants also exhibited increased activity of ATP-sulfurylase (ATPS), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione reductase (GR) and optimized NO generation that helped in minimizing oxidative stress. The enhanced S-assimilation of these plants receiving NO plus S resulted in increased production of cysteine (Cys) and reduced glutathione (GSH). These findings indicated that NO influenced photosynthesis under salt stress by regulating oxidative stress and its effects on S-assimilation, an antioxidant system and NO generation. The results suggest that NO improves photosynthetic performance of plants grown under salt stress more effectively when plants received S.

Ethylene Potentiates Sulfur-Mediated Reversal of Cadmium Inhibited Photosynthetic Responses in Mustard

The potential of exogenous ethylene and sulfur (S) in reversal of cadmium (Cd)-inhibited photosynthetic and growth responses in mustard (Brassica juncea L. cv. Pusa Jai Kisan) were studied. Plants grown with 50 μM Cd showed increased superoxide and H2O2 accumulation and lipid peroxidation together with increased activity of 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid synthase (ACS) and ethylene production and inhibition of photosynthesis and growth. Application of 1 mM SO42- or 200 μL L-1 ethephon (ethylene source) influenced photosynthetic and growth performance equally in presence or absence of Cd. However, their combined application synergistically improved photosynthetic performance more in presence of Cd and reduced oxidative stress (lower superoxide and H2O2 accumulation) by decreasing ethylene and glucose sensitivity with the increase in cysteine and methionineand a non-proteinogenic thiol (reduced glutathione; GSH) contents. The central role of ethylene in potentiating S-mediated reversal of Cd-induced oxidative stress was evident with the use of ethylene action inhibitor, norbornadiene (NBD). The application of NBD resulted in decreased thiol production and photosynthetic responses. This suggests that ethylene promotes the effects of S in reversal of adverse effects of Cd, and thus, ethylene modulation may be considered as potential tool to substantiate the S effects in reversal of Cd inhibited photosynthesis and growth in mustard.

Photosynthetic and growth responses of two mustard cultivars differing in phytocystatin activity under cadmium stress

Cadmium inhibits photosynthetic capacity of plants by disturbing protein conformations, whereas phytocystatins prevent degradation of target proteins and are involved in abiotic stress tolerance. Two mustard (Brassica juncea L.) cultivars, Ro Agro 4001 and Amruta, were grown with Cd (50 µM) in order to study physiological and biochemical basis of differences in Cd tolerance. Amruta accumulated higher Cd and H2O2 concentrations in leaves than that of Ro Agro 4001. Cd significantly decreased photosynthesis and growth of plants in both cultivars by reducing a chlorophyll content, gas exchange parameters, and activity of Rubisco; the effects were more prominent in Amruta than those in Ro Agro 4001. The greater photosynthesis and growth of Ro Agro 4001 under Cd stress might be attributed to its higher phytocystatin activity together with greater ascorbate peroxidase activity, photosynthetic nitrogen-use efficiency, sulphur assimilation (ATP-sulphurylase activity and S content), and contents of cysteine and reduced glutathione compared to Amruta. In contrast, the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was higher in Amruta than that of Ro Agro 4001 under control conditions, whereas the Cd treatment increased significantly the SOD activity in both cultivars with the greater increase in Ro Agro 4001. The fluorescence spectra of phytocystatin showed a lesser change in Ro Agro 4001 under Cd stress than that in Amruta suggesting higher resistance of Ro Agro 4001 to Cd. The higher phytocystatin activity under Cd stress in Ro Agro 4001 compared to Amruta enabled the plants to protect their proteins more efficiently. This resulted in a greater increase of photosynthetic capacity in Ro Agro 4001 than that of Amruta. Thus, the phytocystatin activity may be considered as a physiological parameter for augmenting photosynthesis and growth of mustard under Cd stress.