Thomas Lehrmann Christiansen

3-D imaging using row–column-addressed arrays with integrated apodization— part ii: transducer fabrication and experimental results

This paper demonstrates the fabrication, characterization, and experimental imaging results of a 62+62 element λ/2-pitch row-column-addressed capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) array with integrated apodization. A new fabrication process was used to manufacture a 26.3 mm by 26.3 mm array using five lithography steps. The array includes an integrated apodization, presented in detail in Part I of this paper, which is designed to reduce the amplitude of the ghost echoes that are otherwise prominent for row-column-addressed arrays. Custom front-end electronics were produced with the capability of transmitting and receiving on all elements, and the option of disabling the integrated apodization. The center frequency and -6-dB fractional bandwidth of the array elements were 2.77 ± 0.26 MHz and 102 ± 10%, respectively. The surface transmit pressure at 2.5 MHz was 590 ± 73 kPa, and the sensitivity was 0.299 ± 0.090 V/Pa. The nearest neighbor crosstalk level was -23.9 ± 3.7 dB, while the transmit-to-receive-elements crosstalk level was -40.2 ± 3.5 dB. Imaging of a 0.3-mm-diameter steel wire using synthetic transmit focusing with 62 single-element emissions demonstrated axial and lateral FWHMs of 0.71 mm and 1.79 mm (f-number: 1.4), respectively, compared with simulated axial and lateral FWHMs of 0.69 mm and 1.76 mm. The dominant ghost echo was reduced by 15.8 dB in measurements using the integrated apodization compared with the disabled configuration. The effect was reproduced in simulations, showing a ghost echo reduction of 18.9 dB.

Fabrication of combined-scale nano- and microfluidic polymer systems using a multilevel dry etching, electroplating and molding process

Microfabricated single-cell capture and DNA stretching devices have been produced by injection molding. The fabrication scheme employed deep reactive ion etching in a silicon substrate, electroplating in nickel and molding in cyclic olefin polymer. This work proposes technical solutions to fabrication challenges associated with chip sealing and demolding of polymer high-volume replication methods. UV-assisted thermal bonding was found to ensure a strong seal of the microstructures in the molded part without altering the geometry of the channels. In the DNA stretching device, a low aspect ratio nanoslit (1/200) connecting two larger micro-channels was used to stretch a 168.5 kbp DNA molecule, while in the other device single-HeLa cells were captured against a micro-aperture connecting two larger microfluidic channels. Different dry etching processes have been investigated for the master origination of the cell-capture device. The combination of a modified Bosch process and an isotropic polysilicon etch was found to ensure the ease of demolding by resulting in slightly positively tapered sidewalls with negligible undercut at the mask interface. (Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

3-D imaging using row-column-addressed arrays with integrated apodization - part i: apodization design and line element beamforming

This paper investigates the effect of transducerintegrated apodization in row-column-addressed arrays and presents a beamforming approach specific for such arrays. Row-column addressing 2-D arrays greatly reduces the number of active channels needed to acquire a 3-D volume. A disadvantage of row-column-addressed arrays is an apparent ghost effect in the point spread function caused by edge waves. This paper investigates the origin of the edge waves and the effect of introducing an integrated apodization to reduce the ghost echoes. The performance of a λ/2-pitch 5-MHz 128 + 128 row-column-addressed array with different apodizations is simulated. A Hann apodization is shown to decrease imaging performance away from the center axis of the array because of a decrease in main lobe amplitude. Instead, a static roll-off apodization region located at the ends of the line elements is proposed. In simulations, the peak ghost echo intensity of a scatterer at (x, y, z) = (8, 3, 30) mm was decreased by 43 dB by integrating roll-off apodization into the array. The main lobe was unaffected by the apodization. Simulations of a 3-mm-diameter anechoic blood vessel at 30 mm depth showed that applying the transducer-integrated apodization increased the apparent diameter of the vessel from 2.0 mm to 2.4 mm, corresponding to an increase from 67% to 80% of the true vessel diameter. The line element beamforming approach is shown to be essential for achieving correct time-of-flight calculations, and hence avoid geometrical distortions. In Part II of this work, experimental results from a capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer with integrated roll-off apodization are given to validate the effect of integrating apodization into the line elements.

Screen printed PZT/PZT thick film bimorph MEMS cantilever device for vibration energy harvesting

We present a MEMS-based PZT/PZT thick film bimorph vibration energy harvester with an integrated silicon proof mass. The most common piezoelectric energy harvesting devices utilize a cantilever beam of a non piezoelectric material as support beneath or in-between the piezoelectric material. It provides mechanical support but it also reduces the power output. Our device replaces the support with another layer of the piezoelectric material, and with the absence of an inactive mechanical support all of the stresses induced by the vibrations will be harvested by the active piezoelectric elements.

MEMS-based thick film PZT vibrational energy harvester

We present a MEMS-based unimorph silicon/PZT thick film vibrational energy harvester with an integrated proof mass. We have developed a process that allows fabrication of high performance silicon based energy harvesters with a yield higher than 90%. The process comprises a KOH etch using a mechanical front side protection of an SOI wafer with screen printed PZT thick film. The fabricated harvester device produces 14.0 µW with an optimal resistive load of 100 kΩ from 1g (g=9.81 m s−2) input acceleration at its resonant frequency of 235 Hz.

Electrostatic and small-signal analysis of CMUTs with circular and square anisotropic plates

Traditionally, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) are modeled using the isotropic plate equation, and this leads to deviations between analytical calculations and finite element modeling (FEM). In this paper, the deflection is calculated for both circular and square plates using the full anisotropic plate equation. It is shown that the anisotropic calculations match excellently with FEM, whereas an isotropic approach causes up to 10% deviations in deflection. For circular plates, an exact solution can be found. For square plates using the Galerkin method, and utilizing the symmetry of the silicon crystal, a compact and accurate expression for the deflection can be obtained. The deviation from FEM in center deflection is <;0.1%. The theory of multilayer plates is also applied to the CMUT. The deflection of a square plate was measured on fabricated CMUTs using a white light interferometer. Fitting the plate parameter for the anisotropic calculated deflection to the measurement, a deviation of 0.07% is seen. Electrostatic and small-signal dynamic analysis are performed using energy considerations including anisotropy. The stable position, effective spring constant, pull-in distance, and pull-in voltage are found for both circular and square anisotropic plates, and the pressure dependence is included by comparison with the corresponding analysis for a parallel plate. Measurements on fabricated devices with both circular and square plates subjected to increasing bias voltage are performed, and it is observed that the models including anisotropic effects are within the uncertainty interval of the measurements. Finally, a lumped element small-signal model for both circular and square anisotropic plates is derived to describe the dynamics of the CMUT.

A hand-held row-column addressed CMUT probe with integrated electronics for volumetric imaging

A 3 MHz, λ/2-pitch 62+62 channel row-column addressed 2-D CMUT array designed to be mounted in a probe handle and connected to a commercial BK Medical scanner for real-time volumetric imaging is presented. It is mounted and wire-bonded on a flexible PCB, which is connected to two rigid PCBs with pre-amplifiers for driving the cable to the scanner. The array and PCBs are encapsulated in a 3-D printed handle, and a grounded shielding layer and silicone coating is applied to the front-side of the array for physical and electrical isolation. The handle is assembled together with a 192-channel coaxial cable that connects it to the ultrasound scanner, which supplies the probe with a 190 V DC bias voltage and up to ±75V AC excitation voltage. The probe was successfully connected to a BK3000 scanner and used as two decoupled 1-D phased arrays. Volumetric imaging was demonstrated using the experimental SARUS scanner with 132 volumes/sec.

Row-column addressed 2-D CMUT arrays with integrated apodization

Experimental results from row-column addressed capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) with integrated apodization are presented. The apodization is applied by varying the density of CMUT cells in the array with the objective of damping the edge waves originating from the element ends. Two row-column addressed 32+32 CMUT arrays are produced using a wafer-bonding technique, one with and one without integrated apodization. Hydrophone measurements of the emitted pressure field from the array with integrated apodization show a reduction in edge wave energy of 8.4 dB (85 %) compared to the array without integrated apodization. Field II simulations yield a corresponding reduction of 13.0 dB (95 %). The simulations are able to replicate the measured pressure field, proving the predictability of the technique.

Void-free direct bonding of CMUT arrays with single crystalline plates and pull-in insulation

The implications on direct bonding quality, when using a double oxidation step to fabricate capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs), is analyzed. The protrusions along the CMUT cavity edges created during the second oxidation are investigated using simulations, AFM measurements, and a proposed analytical model, which is in good agreement with the simulated results. The results demonstrate protrusion heights in the order of 10 nm to 40 nm, with higher oxidation temperatures giving the highest protrusions. Isotropically wet etched cavities exhibit significantly smaller protrusions than anisotropically plasma etched cavities after the second oxidation. It is demonstrated that the protrusions will prevent good wafer bonding without subsequent polishing or etching steps. A new fabrication process is therefore proposed, allowing protrusion-free bonding surfaces with no alteration of the final structure and no additional fabrication steps compared to the double oxidation process. Two identical CMUT arrays with circular and square cavities having diameter/side lengths of 72 μm/65 μm and a 20 μm interdistance are fabricated with the two processes, demonstrating void-free bonding and 100 % yield from the proposed process compared to poor bonding and 7 % yield using the double oxidation process.

3-D Vector Flow Estimation With Row–Column-Addressed Arrays

Simulation and experimental results from 3-D vector flow estimations for a 62 + 62 2-D row-column (RC) array with integrated apodization are presented. A method for implementing a 3-D transverse oscillation (TO) velocity estimator on a 3-MHz RC array is developed and validated. First, a parametric simulation study is conducted, where flow direction, ensemble length, number of pulse cycles, steering angles, transmit/receive apodization, and TO apodization profiles and spacing are varied, to find the optimal parameter configuration. The performance of the estimator is evaluated with respect to relative mean bias B̃ and mean standard deviation σ. Second, the optimal parameter configuration is implemented on the prototype RC probe connected to the experimental ultrasound scanner SARUS. Results from measurements conducted in a flow-rig system containing a constant laminar flow and a straight-vessel phantom with a pulsating flow are presented. Both an M-mode and a steered transmit sequence are applied. The 3-D vector flow is estimated in the flow rig for four representative flow directions. In the setup with 90° beam-to-flow angle, the relative mean bias across the entire velocity profile is (-4.7, -0.9, 0.4)% with a relative standard deviation of (8.7, 5.1, 0.8)% for (Vx, Vy, Vz). The estimated peak velocity is 48.5 ± 3 cm/s giving a -3% bias. The out-of-plane velocity component perpendicular to the cross section is used to estimate volumetric flow rates in the flow rig at a 90° beam-to-flow angle. The estimated mean flow rate in this setup is 91.2 ± 3.1 L/h corresponding to a bias of -11.1%. In a pulsating flow setup, flow rate measured during five cycles is 2.3 ± 0.1 mL/stroke giving a negative 9.7% bias. It is concluded that accurate 3-D vector flow estimation can be obtained using a 2-D RC-addressed array.