Thomas M. Bridges

Novel Selective Allosteric Activator of the M1 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Regulates Amyloid Processing and Produces Antipsychotic-Like Activity in Rats

Recent studies suggest that subtype-selective activators of M1/M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) may offer a novel approach for the treatment of psychotic symptoms associated with schizophrenia and Alzheimers disease. Previously developed muscarinic agonists have provided clinical data in support of this hypothesis, but failed in clinical development because of a lack of true subtype specificity and adverse effects associated with activation of other mAChR subtypes. We now report characterization of a novel highly selective agonist for the M1 receptor with no agonist activity at any of the other mAChR subtypes, termed TBPB [1-(1′-2-methylbenzyl)-1,4′-bipiperidin-4-yl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2(3H)-one]. Mutagenesis and molecular pharmacology studies revealed that TBPB activates M1 through an allosteric site rather than the orthosteric acetylcholine binding site, which is likely critical for its unprecedented selectivity. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings demonstrated that activation of M1 by TBPB potentiates NMDA receptor currents in hippocampal pyramidal cells but does not alter excitatory or inhibitory synaptic transmission, responses thought to be mediated by M2 and M4. TBPB was efficacious in models predictive of antipsychotic-like activity in rats at doses that did not produce catalepsy or peripheral adverse effects of other mAChR agonists. Finally, TBPB had effects on the processing of the amyloid precursor protein toward the non-amyloidogenic pathway and decreased Aβ production in vitro. Together, these data suggest that selective activation of M1 may provide a novel approach for the treatment of symptoms associated with schizophrenia and Alzheimers disease.

A selective allosteric potentiator of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor increases activity of medial prefrontal cortical neurons and restores impairments in reversal learning

M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) may represent a viable target for treatment of disorders involving impaired cognitive function. However, a major limitation to testing this hypothesis has been a lack of highly selective ligands for individual mAChR subtypes. We now report the rigorous molecular characterization of a novel compound, benzylquinolone carboxylic acid (BQCA), which acts as a potent, highly selective positive allosteric modulator (PAM) of the rat M1 receptor. This compound does not directly activate the receptor, but acts at an allosteric site to increase functional responses to orthosteric agonists. Radioligand binding studies revealed that BQCA increases M1 receptor affinity for acetylcholine. We found that activation of the M1 receptor by BQCA induces a robust inward current and increases spontaneous EPSCs in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) pyramidal cells, effects which are absent in acute slices from M1 receptor knock-out mice. Furthermore, to determine the effect of BQCA on intact and functioning brain circuits, multiple single-unit recordings were obtained from the mPFC of rats that showed BQCA increases firing of mPFC pyramidal cells in vivo. BQCA also restored discrimination reversal learning in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimers disease and was found to regulate non-amyloidogenic APP processing in vitro, suggesting that M1 receptor PAMs have the potential to provide both symptomatic and disease modifying effects in Alzheimers disease patients. Together, these studies provide compelling evidence that M1 receptor activation induces a dramatic excitation of PFC neurons and suggest that selectively activating the M1 mAChR subtype may ameliorate impairments in cognitive function.

G-protein-coupled receptors: from classical modes of modulation to allosteric mechanisms.

Heterotrimeric G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent a large protein family responsible for mediating extracellular to intracellular signaling within a broad range of physiological contexts. Various conventional models have been used to describe their interactions with ligands and G-proteins. In recent years, however, numerous novel ligand-receptor interactions not adequately addressed by classical receptor theory have been recognized. In addition to traditional orthosteric ligands, many GPCRs can bind allosteric ligands that modulate receptor activity by interacting with distinct or overlapping receptor sites. Such ligands include positive allosteric modulators, which have become the focus of pharmaceutical drug discovery programs and have gained the attention of a growing body of basic and translational researchers within the academic community. Here, we review the fundamental aspects of allosteric GPCR modulation by small-molecule ligands, with particular focus on the emerging position of positive allosteric modulators in modern drug discovery.

Centrally Active Allosteric Potentiators of the M4 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Reverse Amphetamine-Induced Hyperlocomotor Activity in Rats

Previous clinical and animal studies suggest that selective activators of M1 and/or M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) have potential as novel therapeutic agents for treatment of schizophrenia and Alzheimers disease. However, highly selective centrally penetrant activators of either M1 or M4 have not been available, making it impossible to determine the in vivo effects of selective activation of these receptors. We previously identified VU10010 [3-amino-N-(4-chlorobenzyl)-4, 6-dimethylthieno[2,3-b]pyridine-2-carboxamide] as a potent and selective allosteric potentiator of M4 mAChRs. However, unfavorable physiochemical properties prevented use of this compound for in vivo studies. We now report that chemical optimization of VU10010 has afforded two centrally penetrant analogs, VU0152099 [3-amino-N-(benzo[d][1,3]dioxol-5-ylmethyl)-4,6-dimethylthieno[2,3-b]pyridine carboxamide] and VU0152100 [3-amino-N-(4-methoxybenzyl)-4,6-dimethylthieno[2,3-b]pyridine carboxamide], that are potent and selective positive allosteric modulators of M4. VU0152099 and VU0152100 had no agonist activity but potentiated responses of M4 to acetylcholine. Both compounds were devoid of activity at other mAChR subtypes or at a panel of other GPCRs. The improved physiochemical properties of VU0152099 and VU0152100 allowed in vivo dosing and evaluation of behavioral effects in rats. Interestingly, these selective allosteric potentiators of M4 reverse amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion in rats, a model that is sensitive to known antipsychotic agents and to nonselective mAChR agonists. This is consistent with the hypothesis that M4 plays an important role in regulating midbrain dopaminergic activity and raises the possibility that positive allosteric modulation of M4 may mimic some of the antipsychotic-like effects of less selective mAChR agonists.

Application of combinatorial chemistry science on modern drug discovery.

The science that established combinatorial chemistry as important new discipline in the 1980s and 1990s has re-emerged and infiltrated every sub-discipline within modern drug discovery and has profound impact. The application of combinatorial chemistry science has revolutioned high-throughput screening paradigms, chemical lead optimization, library purification, and post-purification sample handling, as well as in vitro and in vivo drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic assays. Although no longer in the spotlight and heralded as the savior of the drug industry, “combinatorial chemistry” is alive and well; in fact, combinatorial chemistry science is more prevalent and wide-spread than ever before.

Discovery and Characterization of Novel Allosteric Potentiators of M1 Muscarinic Receptors Reveals Multiple Modes of Activity

Activators of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) may provide novel treatments for schizophrenia and Alzheimers disease. Unfortunately, the development of M1-active compounds has resulted in nonselective activation of the highly related M2 to M5 mAChR subtypes, which results in dose-limiting side effects. Using a functional screening approach, we identified several novel ligands that potentiated agonist activation of M1 with low micromolar potencies and induced 5-fold or greater leftward shifts of the acetylcholine (ACh) concentration-response curve. These ligands did not compete for binding at the ACh binding site, indicating that they modulate receptor activity by binding to allosteric sites. The two most selective compounds, cyclopentyl 1,6-dimethyl-4-(6-nitrobenzo[d][1,3]-dioxol-5-yl)-2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidine-5-carboxylate (VU0090157) and (E)-2-(4-ethoxyphenylamino)-N′-((2-hydroxynaphthalen-1-yl)methylene)acetohydrazide (VU0029767), induced progressive shifts in ACh affinity at M1 that were consistent with their effects in a functional assay, suggesting that the mechanism for enhancement of M1 activity by these compounds is by increasing agonist affinity. These compounds were strikingly different, however, in their ability to potentiate responses at a mutant M1 receptor with decreased affinity for ACh and in their ability to affect responses of the allosteric M1 agonist, 1-[1′-(2-tolyl)-1,4′-bipiperidin-4-yl]-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one. Furthermore, these two compounds were distinct in their abilities to potentiate M1-mediated activation of phosphoinositide hydrolysis and phospholipase D. The discovery of multiple structurally distinct positive allosteric modulators of M1 is an exciting advance in establishing the potential of allosteric modulators for selective activation of this receptor. These data also suggest that structurally diverse M1 potentiators may act by distinct mechanisms and differentially regulate receptor coupling to downstream signaling pathways.

A Novel Selective Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Subtype 1 Antagonist Reduces Seizures without Impairing Hippocampus-Dependent Learning

Previous studies suggest that selective antagonists of specific subtypes of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) may provide a novel approach for the treatment of certain central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including epileptic disorders, Parkinsons disease, and dystonia. Unfortunately, previously reported antagonists are not highly selective for specific mAChR subtypes, making it difficult to definitively establish the functional roles and therapeutic potential for individual subtypes of this receptor subfamily. The M1 mAChR is of particular interest as a potential target for treatment of CNS disorders. We now report the discovery of a novel selective antagonist of M1 mAChRs, termed VU0255035 [N-(3-oxo-3-(4-(pyridine-4-yl)piperazin-1-yl)propyl)-benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole-4 sulfonamide]. Equilibrium radioligand binding and functional studies demonstrate a greater than 75-fold selectivity of VU0255035 for M1 mAChRs relative to M2-M5. Molecular pharmacology and mutagenesis studies indicate that VU0255035 is a competitive orthosteric antagonist of M1 mAChRs, a surprising finding given the high level of M1 mAChR selectivity relative to other orthosteric antagonists. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings demonstrate that VU0255035 inhibits potentiation of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor currents by the muscarinic agonist carbachol in hippocampal pyramidal cells. VU0255035 has excellent brain penetration in vivo and is efficacious in reducing pilocarpine-induced seizures in mice. We were surprised to find that doses of VU0255035 that reduce pilocarpine-induced seizures do not induce deficits in contextual freezing, a measure of hippocampus-dependent learning that is disrupted by nonselective mAChR antagonists. Taken together, these data suggest that selective antagonists of M1 mAChRs do not induce the severe cognitive deficits seen with nonselective mAChR antagonists and could provide a novel approach for the treatment certain of CNS disorders.

The Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 4-Positive Allosteric Modulator VU0364770 Produces Efficacy Alone and in Combination with l-DOPA or an Adenosine 2A Antagonist in Preclinical Rodent Models of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinsons disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disorder associated with severe motor impairments caused by the loss of dopaminergic innervation of the striatum. Previous studies have demonstrated that positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 (mGlu4), including N-phenyl-7-(hydroxyimino)cyclopropa[b]chromen-1a-carboxamide, can produce antiparkinsonian-like effects in preclinical models of PD. However, these early mGlu4 PAMs exhibited unsuitable physiochemical properties for systemic dosing, requiring intracerebroventricular administration and limiting their broader utility as in vivo tools to further understand the role of mGlu4 in the modulation of basal ganglia function relevant to PD. In the present study, we describe the pharmacologic characterization of a systemically active mGlu4 PAM, N-(3-chlorophenyl)picolinamide (VU0364770), in several rodent PD models. VU0364770 showed efficacy alone or when administered in combination with l-DOPA or an adenosine 2A (A2A) receptor antagonist currently in clinical development (preladenant). When administered alone, VU0364770 exhibited efficacy in reversing haloperidol-induced catalepsy, forelimb asymmetry-induced by unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesions of the median forebrain bundle, and attentional deficits induced by bilateral 6-OHDA nigrostriatal lesions in rats. In addition, VU0364770 enhanced the efficacy of preladenant to reverse haloperidol-induced catalepsy when given in combination. The effects of VU0364770 to reverse forelimb asymmetry were also potentiated when the compound was coadministered with an inactive dose of l-DOPA, suggesting that mGlu4 PAMs may provide l-DOPA-sparing activity. The present findings provide exciting support for the potential role of selective mGlu4 PAMs as a novel approach for the symptomatic treatment of PD and a possible augmentation strategy with either l-DOPA or A2A antagonists.

Unique signaling profiles of positive allosteric modulators of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 determine differences in in vivo activity

BACKGROUND Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5) activators have emerged as a novel approach to the treatment of schizophrenia. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of mGlu5 have generated tremendous excitement and fueled major drug discovery efforts. Although mGlu5 PAMs have robust efficacy in preclinical models of schizophrenia, preliminary reports suggest that these compounds may induce seizure activity. Prototypical mGlu5 PAMs do not activate mGlu5 directly but selectively potentiate activation of mGlu5 by glutamate. This mechanism may be critical to maintaining normal activity-dependence of mGlu5 activation and achieving optimal in vivo effects. METHODS Using specially engineered mGlu5 cell lines incorporating point mutations within the allosteric and orthosteric binding sites, as well as brain slice electrophysiology and in vivo electroencephalography and behavioral pharmacology, we found that some mGlu5 PAMs have intrinsic allosteric agonist activity in the absence of glutamate. RESULTS Both in vitro mutagenesis and in vivo pharmacology studies demonstrate that VU0422465 is an agonist PAM that induces epileptiform activity and behavioral convulsions in rodents. In contrast, VU0361747, an mGlu5 PAMs optimized to eliminate allosteric agonist activity, has robust in vivo efficacy and does not induce adverse effects at doses that yield high brain concentrations. CONCLUSIONS Loss of the absolute dependence of mGlu5 PAMs on glutamate release for their activity can lead to severe adverse effects. The finding that closely related mGlu5 PAMs can differ in their intrinsic agonist activity provides critical new insights that is essential for advancing these molecules through clinical development for treatment of schizophrenia.

Discovery of the First Highly M5-Preferring Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Ligand, an M5 Positive Allosteric Modulator Derived from a Series of 5-Trifluoromethoxy N-Benzyl Isatins

This report describes the discovery and initial characterization of the first positive allosteric modulator of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype 5 (mAChR5 or M5). Functional HTS, identified VU0119498, which displayed micromolar potencies for potentiation of acetylcholine at M1, M3, and M5 receptors in cell-based Ca(2+) mobilization assays. Subsequent optimization led to the discovery of VU0238429, which possessed an EC(50) of approximately 1.16 microM at M5 with >30-fold selectivity versus M1 and M3, with no M2 or M4 potentiator activity.