Timothy E. Goldsmith

Data collection and analysis techniques for evaluating the perceptual qualities of auditory stimuli

This paper describes a general methodological framework for evaluating the perceptual properties of auditory stimuli. The framework provides analysis techniques that can ensure the effective use of sound for a variety of applications, including virtual reality and data sonification systems. Specifically, we discuss data collection techniques for the perceptual qualities of single auditory stimuli including identification tasks, context-based ratings, and attribute ratings. In addition, we present methods for comparing auditory stimuli, such as discrimination tasks, similarity ratings, and sorting tasks. Finally, we discuss statistical techniques that focus on the perceptual relations among stimuli, such as Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) and Pathfinder Analysis. These methods are presented as a starting point for an organized and systematic approach for nonexperts in perceptual experimental methods, rather than as a complete manual for performing the statistical techniques and data collection methods. It is our hope that this paper will help foster further interdisciplinary collaboration among perceptual researchers, designers, engineers, and others in the development of effective auditory displays.

Locus of the Predictive Advantage in Pathfinder-Based Representations of Classroom Knowledge.

Earlier T. E. Goldsmith, P. J. Johnson, and W. H. Acton (1991) reported that a Pathfinder-based representation of domain knowledge was more predictive of classroom exam performance than the underlying data from which the Pathfinder representation was derived (relatedness ratings of pairs of concepts from the domain). The question is, what affords Pathfinder this predictive advantage? Analyses reveal that whereas the relatedness ratings are based on a 7-point scale, all of the predictiveness is contained in the most highly related pairs. Moreover, Pathfinders advantage is related to the manner in which it dichotomizes the relatedness data into directly linked and indirectly linked concept pairs

Goal specificity and knowledge acquisition in statistics problem solving: Evidence for attentional focus

Solving training problems with nonspecific goals (NG; i.e., solving for all possible unknown values) often results in better transfer than solving training problems with standard goals (SG; i.e., solving for one particular unknown value). In this study, we evaluated an attentional focus explanation of the goal specificity effect. According to the attentional focus view, solving NG problems causes attention to be directed to local relations among successive problem states, whereas solving SG problems causes attention to be directed to relations between the various problem states and the goal state. Attention to the former is thought to enhance structural knowledge about the problem domain and thus promote transfer. Results supported this view because structurally different transfer problems were solved faster following NG training than following SG training. Moreover, structural knowledge representations revealed more links depicting local relations following NG training and more links to the training goal following SG training. As predicted, these effects were obtained only by domain novices.

Medical students learn over distance using virtual reality simulation.

Introduction: This article presents the results of a demonstration project that was designed with the goal to determine the feasibility and acceptability of medical students in using distance technology and virtual reality (VR) simulation within a problem-based learning (PBL). Methods: This pilot project involved students from the Universities of New Mexico and Hawaii and compared (1) control groups consisting of medical students in a tutor-guided PBL session using a text-based case, (2) distance groups using the same text-based case but interacting over distance from multiple sites, (3) groups using a VR simulation scenario integrated into the case without interaction over distance, and (4) combination groups interacting over distance from multiple sites with integration of a VR simulation scenario. Results: The study results suggest that it is possible to successfully conduct a PBL tutorial with medical students from two institutions with the integration VR and distributed distance interaction in combination or independently. The addition of these modalities did not interfere with learning dynamics when compared with traditional tutorial sessions. Conclusions: These findings suggest the feasibility and acceptability by students in the use of VR simulation integrated into a PBL learning session, as well as multipoint distance technologies that allowed interaction between students and tutors in different locations. The authors believe that these modalities can be applied where students and tutors from different institutions are in separate locations and can be used to support interactive experiential learning in a distributed network or on site and suggest areas for additional research.

Application of Psychometrics to the Calibration of Air Carrier Evaluators

The FAAs Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) encourages airlines to implement proficiency-based training programs and requires collection of reliable and valid performance assessment data. We present applications of traditional and innovative psychometric methods to this domain.

Assessing Air Medical Crew Real-Time Readiness to Perform Critical Tasks

Abstract Background. Air medical transport has had problems with its safety record, attributed in part to human error. Flight crew members (FCMs) must be able to focus on critical safety tasks in the context of a stressful environment. Flight crew members’ cognitive readiness (CR) to perform their jobs may be affected by sleep deprivation, personal problems, high workload, and use of alcohol and drugs. Objective. The current study investigated the feasibility of using a computer-based cognitive task to assess FCMs’ readiness to perform their job. Methods. The FCMs completed a short questionnaire to evaluate their physiologic and psychological state at the beginning and end of each shift. The FCMs then performed 3 minutes of a computer-based cognitive task called synthetic work environment (SYNWIN test battery). Task performance was compared with the questionnaire variables using correlation and regression analysis. Differences between the beginning and end of each shift were matched and compared using a paired Students t test. Results. SYNWIN performance was significantly worse at the end of a shift compared with the beginning of the shift (p = 0.028) primarily because of decrement in the memory component. The SYNWIN composite scores were negatively correlated to degree of irritability felt by the participant, both before (r = –0.25) and after (r = –0.34) a shift and were significantly correlated with amount of sleep (0.22), rest (0.30), and life satisfaction (0.30). Conclusions. Performance by FCMs on a simple, rapid, computer-based psychological test correlates well with self-reported sleep, rest, life satisfaction, and irritability. Although further studies are warranted, these findings suggest that assessment of the performance of FCMs on a simple, rapid, computer-based, multitasking battery is feasible as an approach to determine their readiness to perform critical safety tasks through the SYNWIN task battery.

Variation in individuals' semantic networks for common knowledge is associated with false memory

Three experiments assessed the relationships between false memories of words and their degree of connectedness within individual semantic networks. In the first two experiments, participants studied associated word lists (e.g., hot, winter, ice), completed a recognition test that included related nonstudied words (e.g., cold, snow), and then rated the semantic relatedness of all word pairs including studied and nonstudied words. In the third experiment, the task order was reversed; participants completed pairwise ratings and then, two weeks later, completed the false memory task. The relatedness ratings were analysed using the Pathfinder scaling algorithm. In all experiments, items that an individual falsely recognized had higher semantic Pathfinder node densities than those items correctly rejected.

Flight Crew Errors in Challenging and Stressful Situations

Emergencies and other threatening situations challenge the cognitive capabilities of even the most skilled performers. While the effects of acute stress on cognition and performance have been examined in diverse laboratory studies, few studies have focused on skilled performers. We analyzed 12 airline accidents to determine the types of errors arising in situations that are highly challenging and probably stressful. We identified 212 flight crew errors from accident investigation reports; these errors were grouped into eight higher-level error categories. Cognitive factors contributing to vulnerability to these errors were identified and related to theoretical models of stress. Finally, we suggest specific ways to guard against stress-related errors by enhancing training, operating procedures, and cockpit interfaces.

Performance Differences on Rejected Takeoffs as a Function of Expectancy

Unexpected emergency situations in the aviation realm (e.g., rejected takeoffs) demand an immediate response from the pilot in order to avoid severe consequences. Commercial pilots receive extensive training on emergency maneuvers in simulators; however, on rare occasions pilots experience an unexpected event and perform poorly. We completed a series of studies aimed at investigating the effects of expectancy on performance for rejected takeoffs. We found that undergraduate students had a significant degradation in performance for unexpected rejected takeoffs. These results have implications for pilots who experience unexpected events on the line.