Tina M. Widowski

The effects of weaning at 7, 14 and 28 days on piglet behaviour

Abstract There has been a trend in North America towards very early weaning of piglets combined with a segregation of the piglets from the sow in a system known as Segregated Early Weaning (SEW). This paper investigates the effects of very early weaning on piglet behaviour. In order to determine the effects of weaning age on piglet behaviour, litters of piglets were randomly assigned to be weaned at 7, 14, and 28 days of age. In each of three trials, piglets from three litters were mixed into two pens of 10 piglets per weaning age (six replicates per treatment, N =180). Pens were video-taped for 2 days immediately post-weaning and periodically until piglets were 6 weeks of age. There were marked differences in the behaviour of the piglets weaned at the different ages. Piglets weaned at 7 days spent more time belly-nosing ( P P P P P P P P P

Effect of age on the behavioral and physiological responses of piglets to tail docking and ear notching1

Neonatal piglets are often subject to potentially painful processing procedures such as tail docking and ear notching during the first few days after birth. However, these procedures may influence the development of suckling behavior and passive transfer of immunoglobulins, especially if done within the first day postpartum. The objective of this experiment was to compare the effects of processing piglets during the first 24 h versus at 3 d of age on suckling and pain-related behavior, the passive transfer of immunoglobulins, and growth. Six piglets per litter from 20 litters (n = 120 piglets) were used in a 3 x 2 complete block design. Piglets were weighed at birth and assigned to 1 of 3 treatments (balanced by birth weight): control (unmanipulated), sham processed (manually manipulated), and processed (tail docked and ear notched) at 1 of 2 ages (1 or 3 d of age). Vocalizations were recorded during the procedures, and piglets were observed after the procedures for pain-related behavior. Suckling behavior was observed for 6 h on each of d 1 to 4. Colostrum samples were collected after the birth of all piglets (before first suck), and blood samples were collected on d 5 to examine concentrations of immunoglobulins (IgA and IgG) and IGF-I. Body weights were measured at birth and on d 5 and 14. During the procedures, processed piglets, regardless of age, vocalized at a greater frequency (P < 0.001) and produced more high frequency calls (P = 0.016) than sham-processed piglets. All piglets on d 1 produced more high frequency calls than all piglets on d 3 (P = 0.047). Immediately after the procedures, sham-processed and processed piglets spent less time lying and more time standing than control piglets (P < 0.001), whereas processed piglets jammed their tail between their legs more than sham-processed or control piglets (P < 0.001). Lying, standing and tail posture were not influenced by age, nor were there age by treatment interactions. Piglets on d 1 trembled more than piglets on d 3 (P < 0.001), and this tended to be exacerbated by processing (P = 0.076). There was no effect of treatment or age of treatment on suckling behavior. Processed piglets had decreased IgG serum concentrations compared with sham-processed and control piglets (P = 0.029), although there was no interaction between treatment and age of treatment (P = 0.67). Whereas tail docking and ear notching do appear to result in short-term pain and modulated immune status, processing on d 1 appears neither better nor worse than processing on d 3.

External factors and causation of dustbathing in domestic hens.

Dustbathing is known to be motivated by complex interactions between internal factors which build up over time and external factors, such as the sight of a dusty substrate. In this study, the effects of other external factors were investigated. Environmental temperature was shown to be important; frequencies of dustbathing were greater when hens were held at 22 than at 10°C (P<0.01). In a second experiment, a radiant heat source or a radiant heat+light source, balanced to give the same radiant heat, resulted in more dustbathing behaviour during a 1-h stimulus period than during the same period with no stimulus (P<0.05). Components of dustbathing were increased more by the heat+light stimulus than by the heat stimulus alone (P<0.03). In a third experiment, the amount of dustbathing performed by individual hens in cages with dustbaths was increased by the presence of a group of hens dustbathing in an adjoining pen with a dustbath compared with the amount occurring when the hens were absent from the pen.

Temperature and Humidity Conditions in Trucks Transporting Pigs in Two Seasons in Eastern and Western Canada

Climatic conditions in Canada show extreme seasonal variation, and thermal conditions during transport are known to contribute to mortality during transport. However, little information has been published on transport conditions in Canada. In this study, temperature and relative humidity were monitored on commercial livestock trucks transporting pigs to market in eastern and western Canada. In the western trials, pigs traveled for 8 h in a dual-purpose pot-belly (PB) trailer, and in the eastern trials pigs were transported for 2 h in either a PB trailer or a double-deck (DD) truck. In the west, three trials were done in winter and five in summer; in the east, six trials were done in both summer and winter. Delta temperature (T) and delta humidity ratio (HR) were calculated versus ambient conditions during transport for each truck compartment. Mixed model analyses of compartment conditions (delta T and delta HR) within each truck showed that significant variation existed between compartments in both the PB trailer and the DD truck (p < 0.0001). For all vehicles, delta T and delta HR were generally higher (p < 0.05) in lower-front compartments and lower (p < 0.05) in upper-rear compartments in both summer and winter. The results indicate that transport conditions may be improved by increasing ventilation to targeted compartments in summer, or by a combination of insulation and ventilation in winter. Considering the impact of thermal conditions during transport on pig welfare and mortality, further investigation of truck conditions and ways of ameliorating them is warranted.

Using time to insensibility and estimated time of death to evaluate a nonpenetrating captive bolt, cervical dislocation, and blunt trauma for on-farm killing of turkeys

The effectiveness of a pneumatic nonpenetrating captive bolt (Zephyr) was assessed for on-farm euthanasia of turkeys and compared with blunt force trauma, manual cervical dislocation, and mechanical cervical dislocation using a burdizzo. The Zephyr (n = 46) and burdizzo (n = 26) were evaluated in turkey hens (11.4 +/- 0.1 kg), the Zephyr (n = 46) and blunt trauma (n = 32) were evaluated in turkey toms (13.1 +/- 0.2 kg), and the Zephyr (n = 12), blunt trauma (n = 11), and manual cervical dislocation (n = 7) were evaluated in broiler turkeys (4.1 +/- 0.3 kg). The nictitating membrane and pupillary light reflexes were monitored continuously to determine when insensibility occurred. Time of death was estimated based on the end time of convulsions and sustained absence of breathing. The nictitating membrane reflex was present immediately after treatment in all 26 hens killed with a burdizzo versus 8 of 46 hens killed with the Zephyr (P < 0.001). The presence of eye reflexes did not differ between the Zephyr and blunt trauma for toms (1 of 26 toms killed with blunt trauma, 2 of 44 toms killed with the Zephyr, P = 1.0). The nictitating membrane reflex persisted in a greater proportion of broiler turkeys killed with cervical dislocation (7 of 7) versus the Zephyr (0 of 12, P < 0.001) and blunt trauma (2 of 9, P = 0.003) but did not differ between blunt trauma and the Zephyr (P = 0.2). End time of convulsions did not differ between the Zephyr and burdizzo for hens (204 +/- 8 vs. 114 +/- 10 s, P = 0.5) or between the Zephyr and blunt trauma for toms (200 +/- 7 s vs. 218 +/- 11.8 s, P = 0.4) but was shorter after cervical dislocation in broiler turkeys (cervical dislocation: 138 +/- 13 s, Zephyr: 165 +/- 7 s, blunt trauma: 178 +/- 13 s, P < 0.001). Results demonstrated that the Zephyr (discharged twice in immediate succession) and blunt trauma (single hit) were similarly effective at consistently causing immediate insensibility. Conversely, neither method of cervical dislocation caused immediate insensibility. This study may assist in revising current poultry euthanasia recommendations.

Methods for assessment of keel bone damage in poultry

Keel bone damage (KBD) is a critical issue facing the laying hen industry today as a result of the likely pain leading to compromised welfare and the potential for reduced productivity. Recent reports suggest that damage, while highly variable and likely dependent on a host of factors, extends to all systems (including battery cages, furnished cages, and non-cage systems), genetic lines, and management styles. Despite the extent of the problem, the research community remains uncertain as to the causes and influencing factors of KBD. Although progress has been made investigating these factors, the overall effort is hindered by several issues related to the assessment of KBD, including quality and variation in the methods used between research groups. These issues prevent effective comparison of studies, as well as difficulties in identifying the presence of damage leading to poor accuracy and reliability. The current manuscript seeks to resolve these issues by offering precise definitions for types of KBD, reviewing methods for assessment, and providing recommendations that can improve the accuracy and reliability of those assessments.

Eye white percentage as a predictor of temperament in beef cattle

Accurately evaluating and selecting for calm temperament in beef cattle is important for economic and animal welfare reasons. Previous studies have shown that eye white (EW) can be a predictor of a multitude of emotions across different situations, but there is little research on the relationship between EW and temperament. The objective of this experiment was to assess the accuracy and reliability of using the percentage of exposed EW as a predictor of temperament in beef cattle. Forty-eight heifers (group 1), 39 bulls (group 2), and 60 steers (group 3) were video-recorded while in a squeeze chute, and 2 still digital images from each animal were selected for EW determination. Chute temperament scores were assigned: 1 (calm) to 5 (agitated). Flight speeds were measured blindly and independently during a subsequent test in which the amount of time it took a solitary animal to pass a handler and travel a specified distance was recorded. The EW area in each image was measured using Sigmascan Pro 5 and was expressed as the percentage of exposed eye area. Each image was analyzed twice to determine tracing repeatability. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated among 2 images of the same animal, as well as among duplicate readings of the same image to determine animal and tracing repeatabilities. The mean percentages of EW were 30.14 +/- 14.37, 31.43 +/- 14.77, and 28.57 +/- 12.38, and the average percentage accuracy for duplicate image EW measures was 96, 96, and 93 (P < 0.0001) for groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The Pearson correlation coefficients for EW percentage and chute temperament scores were 0.674 (P < 0.0001), 0.95 (P < 0.0001), and 0.696 (P < 0.0001), whereas the correlations between EW and flight speeds were 0.415 (P < 0.0001), 0.333 (P < 0.05), and 0.294 (P < 0.01) for groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Results from this study indicate that percentage EW in cattle could be used as a quantitative tool with minimal equipment to assess temperament in beef cattle, providing an objective method for temperament selection.

How important is social facilitation for dustbathing in laying hens

Abstract Hens in a group usually synchronize dustbathing, such that when one hen starts to dustbathe she will often be joined by others. The sight of another hen dustbathing could thus possibly act as a stimulus increasing motivation for dustbathing, with important implications for hens in furnished cages, where the size of the dustbath normally allows only one hen to dustbathe at a time. If a hen is more motivated to dustbathe when she can see another hen dustbathing but she cannot get access to the litter since the dustbath is occupied, frustration may arise. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of social stimuli on dustbathing motivation. Pairs of hens were exposed to one of three stimuli while being thwarted of dustbathing and they were thereafter given access to dustbathing material. The stimuli were (1) the sight of other hens dustbathing (DB-HEN), (2) the sight of a dustbath with other hens not dustbathing (NODB-HEN) and (3) the sight of a dustbath only (NO-HEN). Twelve pairs of hens were tested both deprived and non-deprived of litter in a balanced within-subject design. Irrespective of deprivation state, hens walked more and spent more time facing the stimulus in DB-HEN than in NO-HEN, and when they were not deprived they also walked more in DB-HEN than in NODB-HEN. Subsequent dustbathing behaviour when hens were given access to litter after the stimulus exposure was unaffected by the type of stimuli. We suggested that subtle effects of social stimuli on dustbathing motivation may have been masked by the effect of long litter deprivation and that it may be important for the birds to be able to join the stimulus birds to dustbathe together. For these reasons we repeated the experiment with individual hens and with a shorter litter deprivation time and a shorter stimulus exposure, after which the test hen was allowed to join the stimulus hen. Furthermore, in this second experiment hens were tested only in DB-HEN and NODB-HEN treatments. We found more displacement preening and less time facing the stimulus in DB-HEN than in NODB-HEN, but dustbathing behaviour was still unaffected by previous social stimuli. In summary, dustbathing behaviour of the test hens was not affected by seeing other hens dustbathing, but increased walking and displacement preening indicated a possible change in the motivation of test hens observing other dustbathing hens.

Effects of transport duration on maintenance behavior, heart rate and gastrointestinal tract temperature of market-weight pigs in 2 seasons.

Welfare and meat quality of market-weight pigs may be negatively affected by transport duration and environmental temperatures, which vary considerably between seasons. This study evaluated the effects of 3 transport durations (6, 12, and 18 h) on the physiology and behavior of pigs in summer and winter in western Canada. Market-weight pigs were transported using a pot-belly trailer at an average loading density of 0.375 m(2)/100 kg. Four replicates of each transport duration were conducted during each season. Heart rate and gastrointestinal tract temperature (GTT) were monitored from loading to unloading in 16 pigs from 4 selected trailer compartments (n = 96 groups, total of 384 animals, BW = 120.8 ± 0.4 kg), namely top front (C1), top back (C4), middle front (C5), and bottom rear (C10). Behavior was recorded for pigs (948 and 924 animals, in summer and winter, respectively) in C1, C4, and C5 during transportation (standing, sitting, lying), and during 90 min in lairage (sitting, lying, drinking, latency to rest) for pigs in all 4 compartments. Transport was split into 7 periods: loading, pre-travel (PT), initial travel (IT), pre-arrival 1 (PA1) and 2 (PA2), unloading, and lairage. During IT and PA2, pigs spent less time lying in winter than summer (P < 0.05 and P < 0.05, respectively). During PA1, PA2, and unloading, a greater (P < 0.001) heart rate was found in pigs transported in winter compared with summer. During PA2, pigs subjected to the 18-h transport treatment in winter had a greater (P < 0.05) GTT than the other groups. In lairage, pigs transported for 18 h in winter drank more (P < 0.001) and took longer to rest (P < 0.01) than pigs from other groups. During PA1, pigs transported for 18 h had the greatest GTT (P < 0.001). At unloading, pigs transported for 6 h had the lowest GTT (P < 0.001). In lairage, pigs transported for 18 h spent less time lying than those transported for 6 or 12 h (P < 0.001). These results suggest that in winter, pigs increased their metabolism and were reluctant to rest on cold floors. Pigs transported for 18 h in winter showed greater evidence of thirst. It may be concluded that under western Canadian climatic conditions, long transports (18 h) in cold weather appear to be more detrimental to pig welfare.

Transportation of market-weight pigs: II. Effect of season and location within truck on behavior with an eight-hour transport1

Transportation of pigs to slaughter has the potential to negatively impact animal welfare, particularly in hot temperatures and over long transport durations. The objective of this experiment was to determine if season and location within vehicle influenced the behavior of market-weight pigs during loading, transit, unloading, and lairage after a long-distance trip to slaughter. On a pot-belly truck, 1,170 pigs were transported (n = 195 pigs/wk in 7 experimental compartments) for 8 h to a commercial abattoir in summer (6 wk) and winter (5 wk). Pig behavior was observed at loading, in transit, at unloading, and in lairage. Handler intervention at loading was observed, and the time to load and unload was recorded. Although season did not (P = 0.91) affect loading time, more prods (P = 0.014) were necessary to load pigs in summer than winter. Loading in winter also tended to be longer (P = 0.071) into compartments involving internal ramps. In transit, more pigs (P = 0.025) were standing in winter compared with summer. Unloading took longer (P < 0.006) in winter than in summer and from compartments where pigs had to negotiate ramps and 180° turns. Furthermore, pigs in summer experienced more slipping (P = 0.032), falling (P = 0.004), overlapping (P < 0.001), and walking backward (P < 0.001) than pigs in winter. Pigs unloading from compartments with internal ramps slipped more (P < 0.0001) than other pigs. Season influenced latency to rest in lairage, with those transported in summer resting sooner (P < 0.0001) than those in winter. In conclusion, season and location within trucks differentially affect pig behavior before, during, and after long-distance transportation. Differences in lighting and temperature between seasons and the inclusion of internal ramps within vehicles may play important roles in the welfare of pigs transported to slaughter.