Travis A. Pemberton

Structural Studies of Geosmin Synthase, a Bifunctional Sesquiterpene Synthase with αα Domain Architecture That Catalyzes a Unique Cyclization–Fragmentation Reaction Sequence

Geosmin synthase from Streptomyces coelicolor (ScGS) catalyzes an unusual, metal-dependent terpenoid cyclization and fragmentation reaction sequence. Two distinct active sites are required for catalysis: the N-terminal domain catalyzes the ionization and cyclization of farnesyl diphosphate to form germacradienol and inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi), and the C-terminal domain catalyzes the protonation, cyclization, and fragmentation of germacradienol to form geosmin and acetone through a retro-Prins reaction. A unique αα domain architecture is predicted for ScGS based on amino acid sequence: each domain contains the metal-binding motifs typical of a class I terpenoid cyclase, and each domain requires Mg(2+) for catalysis. Here, we report the X-ray crystal structure of the unliganded N-terminal domain of ScGS and the structure of its complex with three Mg(2+) ions and alendronate. These structures highlight conformational changes required for active site closure and catalysis. Although neither full-length ScGS nor constructs of the C-terminal domain could be crystallized, homology models of the C-terminal domain were constructed on the basis of ∼36% sequence identity with the N-terminal domain. Small-angle X-ray scattering experiments yield low-resolution molecular envelopes into which the N-terminal domain crystal structure and the C-terminal domain homology model were fit, suggesting possible αα domain architectures as frameworks for bifunctional catalysis.

Kinetic and structural characterization of tunnel-perturbing mutants in Bradyrhizobium japonicum proline utilization A.

Proline utilization A from Bradyrhizobium japonicum (BjPutA) is a bifunctional flavoenzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of proline to glutamate using fused proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) and Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (P5CDH) domains. Recent crystal structures and kinetic data suggest an intramolecular channel connects the two active sites, promoting substrate channeling of the intermediate Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate/glutamate-γ-semialdehyde (P5C/GSA). In this work, the structure of the channel was explored by inserting large side chain residues at four positions along the channel in BjPutA. Kinetic analysis of the different mutants revealed replacement of D779 with Tyr (D779Y) or Trp (D779W) significantly decreased the overall rate of the PRODH–P5CDH channeling reaction. X-ray crystal structures of D779Y and D779W revealed that the large side chains caused a constriction in the central section of the tunnel, thus likely impeding the travel of P5C/GSA in the channel. The D779Y and D779W mutants have PRODH activity similar to that of wild-type BjPutA but exhibit significantly lower P5CDH activity, suggesting that exogenous P5C/GSA enters the channel upstream of Asp779. Replacement of nearby Asp778 with Tyr (D778Y) did not impact BjPutA channeling activity. Consistent with the kinetic results, the X-ray crystal structure of D778Y shows that the main channel pathway is not impacted; however, an off-cavity pathway is closed off from the channel. These findings provide evidence that the off-cavity pathway is not essential for substrate channeling in BjPutA.

Structural Studies of Yeast Δ1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate Dehydrogenase (ALDH4A1): Active Site Flexibility and Oligomeric State

The proline catabolic enzyme Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (ALDH4A1) catalyzes the NAD+-dependent oxidation of γ-glutamate semialdehyde to l-glutamate. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, ALDH4A1 is encoded by the PUT2 gene and known as Put2p. Here we report the steady-state kinetic parameters of the purified recombinant enzyme, two crystal structures of Put2p, and the determination of the oligomeric state and quaternary structure from small-angle X-ray scattering and sedimentation velocity. Using Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate as the substrate, catalytic parameters kcat and Km were determined to be 1.5 s–1 and 104 μM, respectively, with a catalytic efficiency of 14000 M–1 s–1. Although Put2p exhibits the expected aldehyde dehydrogenase superfamily fold, a large portion of the active site is disordered in the crystal structure. Electron density for the 23-residue aldehyde substrate-binding loop is absent, implying substantial conformational flexibility in solution. We furthermore report a new crystal form of human ALDH4A1 (42% identical to Put2p) that also shows disorder in this loop. The crystal structures provide evidence of multiple active site conformations in the substrate-free form of the enzyme, which is consistent with a conformational selection mechanism of substrate binding. We also show that Put2p forms a trimer-of-dimers hexamer in solution. This result is unexpected because human ALDH4A1 is dimeric, whereas some bacterial ALDH4A1s are hexameric. Thus, global sequence identity and domain of life are poor predictors of the oligomeric states of ALDH4A1. Mutation of a single Trp residue that forms knob-in-hole interactions across the dimer–dimer interface abrogates hexamer formation, suggesting that this residue is the center of a protein–protein association hot spot.

Proline: Mother Nature’s cryoprotectant applied to protein crystallography

L-Proline is one of Mother Natures cryoprotectants. Plants and yeast accumulate proline under freeze-induced stress and the use of proline in the cryopreservation of biological samples is well established. Here, it is shown that L-proline is also a useful cryoprotectant for protein crystallography. Proline was used to prepare crystals of lysozyme, xylose isomerase, histidine acid phosphatase and 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase for low-temperature data collection. The crystallization solutions in these test cases included the commonly used precipitants ammonium sulfate, sodium chloride and polyethylene glycol and spanned the pH range 4.6-8.5. Thus, proline is compatible with typical protein-crystallization formulations. The proline concentration needed for cryoprotection of these crystals is in the range 2.0-3.0 M. Complete data sets were collected from the proline-protected crystals. Proline performed as well as traditional cryoprotectants based on the diffraction resolution and data-quality statistics. The structures were refined to assess the binding of proline to these proteins. As observed with traditional cryoprotectants such as glycerol and ethylene glycol, the electron-density maps clearly showed the presence of proline molecules bound to the protein. In two cases, histidine acid phosphatase and 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase, proline binds in the active site. It is concluded that L-proline is an effective cryoprotectant for protein crystallography.

Structural basis of substrate selectivity of Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (ALDH4A1): Semialdehyde chain length

The enzyme Δ(1)-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) dehydrogenase (aka P5CDH and ALDH4A1) is an aldehyde dehydrogenase that catalyzes the oxidation of γ-glutamate semialdehyde to l-glutamate. The crystal structures of mouse P5CDH complexed with glutarate, succinate, malonate, glyoxylate, and acetate are reported. The structures are used to build a structure-activity relationship that describes the semialdehyde carbon chain length and the position of the aldehyde group in relation to the cysteine nucleophile and oxyanion hole. Efficient 4- and 5-carbon substrates share the common feature of being long enough to span the distance between the anchor loop at the bottom of the active site and the oxyanion hole at the top of the active site. The inactive 2- and 3-carbon semialdehydes bind the anchor loop but are too short to reach the oxyanion hole. Inhibition of P5CDH by glyoxylate, malonate, succinate, glutarate, and l-glutamate is also examined. The Ki values are 0.27 mM for glyoxylate, 58 mM for succinate, 30 mM for glutarate, and 12 mM for l-glutamate. Curiously, malonate is not an inhibitor. The trends in Ki likely reflect a trade-off between the penalty for desolvating the carboxylates of the free inhibitor and the number of compensating hydrogen bonds formed in the enzyme-inhibitor complex.

Biophysical investigation of type A PutAs reveals a conserved core oligomeric structure

Many enzymes form homooligomers, yet the functional significance of self‐association is seldom obvious. Herein, we examine the connection between oligomerization and catalytic function for proline utilization A (PutA) enzymes. PutAs are bifunctional enzymes that catalyze both reactions of proline catabolism. Type A PutAs are the smallest members of the family, possessing a minimal domain architecture consisting of N‐terminal proline dehydrogenase and C‐terminal l‐glutamate‐γ‐semialdehyde dehydrogenase modules. Type A PutAs form domain‐swapped dimers, and in one case (Bradyrhizobium japonicum PutA), two of the dimers assemble into a ring‐shaped tetramer. Whereas the dimer has a clear role in substrate channeling, the functional significance of the tetramer is unknown. To address this question, we performed structural studies of four‐type A PutAs from two clades of the PutA tree. The crystal structure of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus PutA covalently inactivated by N‐propargylglycine revealed a fold and substrate‐channeling tunnel similar to other PutAs. Small‐angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS) and analytical ultracentrifugation indicated that Bdellovibrio PutA is dimeric in solution, in contrast to the prediction from crystal packing of a stable tetrameric assembly. SAXS studies of two other type A PutAs from separate clades also suggested that the dimer predominates in solution. To assess whether the tetramer of B. japonicum PutA is necessary for catalytic function, a hot spot disruption mutant that cleanly produces dimeric protein was generated. The dimeric variant exhibited kinetic parameters similar to the wild‐type enzyme. These results implicate the domain‐swapped dimer as the core structural and functional unit of type A PutAs.

Exploring the Influence of Domain Architecture on the Catalytic Function of Diterpene Synthases

Terpenoid synthases catalyze isoprenoid cyclization reactions underlying the generation of more than 80,000 natural products. Such dramatic chemodiversity belies the fact that these enzymes generally consist of only three domain folds designated as α, β, and γ. Catalysis by class I terpenoid synthases occurs exclusively in the α domain, which is found with α, αα, αβ, and αβγ domain architectures. Here, we explore the influence of domain architecture on catalysis by taxadiene synthase from Taxus brevifolia (TbTS, αβγ), fusicoccadiene synthase from Phomopsis amygdali (PaFS, (αα)6), and ophiobolin F synthase from Aspergillus clavatus (AcOS, αα). We show that the cyclization fidelity and catalytic efficiency of the α domain of TbTS are severely compromised by deletion of the βγ domains; however, retention of the β domain preserves significant cyclization fidelity. In PaFS, we previously demonstrated that one α domain similarly influences catalysis by the other α domain [ Chen , M. , Chou , W. K. W. , Toyomasu , T. , Cane , D. E. , and Christianson , D. W. ( 2016 ) ACS Chem. Biol. 11 , 889 - 899 ]. Here, we show that the hexameric quaternary structure of PaFS enables cluster channeling. We also show that the α domains of PaFS and AcOS can be swapped so as to make functional chimeric αα synthases. Notably, both cyclization fidelity and catalytic efficiency are altered in all chimeric synthases. Twelve newly formed and uncharacterized C20 diterpene products and three C25 sesterterpene products are generated by these chimeras. Thus, engineered αβγ and αα terpenoid cyclases promise to generate chemodiversity in the greater family of terpenoid natural products.

General base-general acid catalysis by terpenoid cyclases

Terpenoid cyclases catalyze the most complex reactions in biology, in that more than half of the substrate carbon atoms often undergo changes in bonding during the course of a multistep cyclization cascade that proceeds through multiple carbocation intermediates. Many cyclization mechanisms require stereospecific deprotonation and reprotonation steps, and most cyclization cascades are terminated by deprotonation to yield an olefin product. The first bacterial terpenoid cyclase to yield a crystal structure was pentalenene synthase from Streptomyces exfoliatus UC5319. This cyclase generates the hydrocarbon precursor of the pentalenolactone family of antibiotics. The structures of pentalenene synthase and other terpenoid cyclases reveal predominantly nonpolar active sites typically lacking amino acid side chains capable of serving general base-general acid functions. What chemical species, then, enables the Brønsted acid–base chemistry required in the catalytic mechanisms of these enzymes? The most likely candidate for such general base-general acid chemistry is the co-product inorganic pyrophosphate. Here, we briefly review biological and nonbiological systems in which phosphate and its derivatives serve general base and general acid functions in catalysis. These examples highlight the fact that the Brønsted acid–base activities of phosphate derivatives are comparable to the Brønsted acid–base activities of amino acid side chains.

Structural Basis for the Substrate Inhibition of Proline Utilization A by Proline

Proline utilization A (PutA) is a bifunctional flavoenzyme that catalyzes the two-step oxidation of l-proline to l-glutamate using spatially separated proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) and l-glutamate-γ-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (GSALDH) active sites. Substrate inhibition of the coupled PRODH-GSALDH reaction by proline is a common kinetic feature of PutAs, yet the structural basis for this phenomenon remains unknown. To understand the mechanism of substrate inhibition, we determined the 2.15 Å resolution crystal structure of Bradyrhizobium japonicum PutA complexed with proline. Proline was discovered in five locations remote from the PRODH active site. Most notably, strong electron density indicated that proline bound tightly to the GSAL binding site of the GSALDH active site. The pose and interactions of proline bound in this site are remarkably similar to those of the natural aldehyde substrate, GSAL, implying that proline inhibits the GSALDH reaction of PutA. Kinetic measurements show that proline is a competitive inhibitor of the PutA GSALDH reaction. Together, the structural and kinetic data show that substrate inhibition of the PutA coupled reaction is due to proline binding in the GSAL site.

EF5 Is the High-Affinity Mg2+ Site in ALG-2

The penta-EF-hand (PEF) protein ALG-2 (apoptosis-linked gene 2) has been implicated in several important physiological processes, including endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi vesicular transport and endosomal biogenesis/transport. ALG-2 was recently shown to harbor a metal ion-binding site with a high affinity for Mg(2+) and a low affinity for Ca(2+). We herein present the X-ray structure of Mg(2+)-bound ALG-2des23(wt). Although the C(α) trace is nearly indistinguishable from that of the Ca(2+)-free protein, the orientation of the C-terminal helix differs in the two structures. Consistent with that observation, replacement of the +x ligand in EF5, D169, with alanine eliminates high-affinity Mg(2+) binding. It also eliminates the low-affinity Ca(2+) site and lowers the affinity of the remaining Ca(2+)-binding sites, EF3 and EF1. The coordination environment in EF5 approaches ideal Mg(2+) octahedral geometry. The ligand array, consisting of three carboxylates (+x, +y, +z), a backbone carbonyl (-y), and two water molecules (-x, -z), may offer a recipe for a high-affinity, high-selectivity Mg(2+)-binding site. Sequence data for other PEF proteins indicate that select calpain large subunits, notably CAPN1 and CAPN8, may also possess a high-affinity Mg(2+)-binding site. In Mg(2+)-bound ALG-2, the carbonyl of F188 and the C-terminal carboxylate of V191 interact with the ε-ammonium group of K137 in the opposing subunit, suggesting that Mg(2+) binding could have an impact on dimerization. Interestingly, EF1 and EF3 are also occupied in the crystal, despite having modest affinity for Mg(2+). The results of a calorimetry-based analysis indicate that their Mg(2+) binding constants are 2 orders of magnitude lower than that determined for EF5.