Wade C. Rowatt

Two Dimensions of Attachment to God and Their Relation to Affect, Religiosity, and Personality Constructs

In this study we sought to address several limitations of previous research on attachment theory and religion by (1) developing a dimensional attachment to God scale, and (2) demonstrating that dimensions of attachment to God are predictive of measures of affect and personality after controlling for social desirability and other related dimensions of religiosity. Questionnaire measures of these constructs were completed by a sample of university students and community adults (total n = 374). Consistent with prior research on adult romantic attachment, two dimensions of attachment to God were identified: avoidance and anxiety. After statistically controlling for social desirability, intrinsic religiousness, doctrinal orthodoxy, and loving God image, anxious attachment to God remained a significant predictor of neuroticism, negative affect, and (inversely) positive affect; avoidant attachment to God remained a significant inverse predictor of religious symbolic immortality and agreeableness. These findings are evidence that correlations between attachment to God and measures of personality and affect are not merely byproducts of confounding effects of socially desirable responding or other dimensions of religiosity. Since the publication of Bowlby’s (1969/1982) first volume more than three decades ago, attachment theory has been enormously influential in the study of social development in children as well as adults (Shaver and Cassidy 1999). More recently, Kirkpatrick (1992, 1999) proposed that the theory provides a powerful framework for understanding many aspects of religious belief, particularly with respect to perceived relationships with God. In support of this idea, numerous studies have shown that religious beliefs and behaviors are related cross-sectionally to individual differences in adult attachment experience (Kirkpatrick 1998; Kirkpatrick and Shaver 1992), and that religious change is empirically predicted longitudinally from retrospective reports of childhood attachment experience (Granqvist and Hagekull 1999; Kirkpatrick and Shaver 1990) and previous adult attachment experience (Kirkpatrick 1997, 1999). A central focus of the attachment-theoretical approach to religion concerns perceived attachments to God. Research has shown that such individual differences correlate inversely with loneliness, depression, and similar constructs (Kirkpatrick and Shaver 1990; Kirkpatrick, Shillito, and Kellas 1999). However, these findings suffer from several important limitations. First, individual differences in attachment to God have heretofore been measured using a crude categorical self-report measure with unknown reliability. Second, these findings are open to alternative interpretations in terms of potentially confounding factors, particularly (1) social desirability response sets and (2) other dimensions of religiosity that might be correlated with the attachment to God measure. The present research was designed to address these issues by developing a multidimensional measure of attachment to God, and demonstrating that these dimensions are predictive of measures of personality and affect after controlling for social desirability as well as other dimensions of religiosity related to attachment to God.

Priming Christian Religious Concepts Increases Racial Prejudice

Positive correlations have been found between several self-report measures of religiousness and racial prejudice; however, no experiment has yet examined the direct effect of religion on racial attitudes. In the current studies, persons were subliminally primed with Christian or neutral words. Then covert racial prejudice (Study 1) and general negative affect toward African-Americans (Study 2) were assessed. Participants subliminally primed with Christian words displayed more covert racial prejudice against African-Americans (Study 1) and more general negative affect toward African-Americans (Study 2) than did persons primed with neutral words. The effects of priming on racial prejudice remained even when statistically controlling for pre-existing levels of religiousness and spirituality. Possible mechanisms for the observed effect of Christian religion on racial prejudice are discussed.

RESEARCH: Christian Orthodoxy, Religious Fundamentalism, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism as Predictors of Implicit Racial Prejudice

This study examined associations between some dimensions of religiosity and implicit racial prejudice. Implicit racial prejudice was measured with S. D. Farnhams (1998) Implicit Association Test (IAT), a software program that records reaction time as participants categorize names (of Blacks and Whites) and adjectives (pleasant or unpleasant). Participants also completed self-report measures of religious fundamentalism, Christian orthodoxy, religious orientations (i.e., intrinsic, extrinsic, quest), right-wing authoritarianism, and social desirability. White college students took significantly longer to categorize names and adjectives in one IAT condition (White-unpleasant, Black-pleasant) than in a second IAT condition (White-pleasant, Black-unpleasant), the race-IAT effect. A multiple regression analysis revealed that right-wing authoritarianism was positively associated with the race-IAT effect (β = .31), Christian orthodoxy was negatively related (β = -.26), and religious fundamentalism (β = .02) and social desirability (β = .08) were less related to this measure of implicit racial prejudice. Intrinsic, extrinsic, and quest religious orientations did not account for unique variation in implicit racial prejudice. Implications of these findings for reducing prejudice are discussed.

Development and initial validation of an implicit measure of humility relative to arrogance

Data from two studies describe the development of an implicit measure of humility and support the idea that dispositional humility is a positive quality with possible benefits. In Study 1, 135 college students completed Humility and Self-Esteem Implicit Association Tests (IATs) and several self-report measures of personality self-concept. Fifty-four participants also completed the Humility IAT again approximately 2 weeks later and their humility was rated by close acquaintances. The Humility IAT was found to be internally and temporally consistent. Implicit humility correlated with self-reported humility relative to arrogance, implicit self-esteem, and narcissism (inversely). Humility was not associated with self-reported low self-esteem, pessimism, or depression. In fact, self-reported humility relative to arrogance correlated positively with self-reported self-esteem, gratitude, forgiveness, spirituality, and general health. In addition, self-reported humility and acquaintance-rated humility correlated positively; however, implicit humility and acquaintance-rated humility were not strongly associated. In Study 2, to examine the idea that humility might be associated with increased academic performance, we examined actual course grades of 55 college students who completed Humility and Self-Esteem IATs. Implicit humility correlated positively with higher actual course grades when narcissism, conscientiousness, and implicit self-esteem were simultaneously controlled. Implications and future research directions are discussed.

Deception to Get a Date

Two studies examined whether some people use more deceptive self-presentation to initiate a dating relationship. Participants reviewed information depicting prospective dates and constructed profiles to be used by the prospects to select a date. In this context, high self-monitoring men and women engaged in more deceptive self-presentation to the person that they desired to date than low self-monitors. Study 2replicated this finding with a variety of personal dimensions and revealed that high self-monitors hold more favorable attitudes toward using deception in dating initiation and admit altering their self-presentation in an attempt to initiate a date. No sex differences in the amount of deceptive self presentation were found. These outcomes suggest that high self-monitors behave in a chameleon-like fashion during dating initiation, strategically and deceptively changing their self-presentation in an attempt to appear more desirable to the person they want to date. Motivations for using deception are discussed.

On being Holier-Than-Thou or Humbler-than-thee: A social-psychological perspective on religiousness and humility

This research examined the association between religiousness and humility. Participants in Studies 1 and 2 completed measures of religiousness, socially desirable responding, and their own and other people’s adherence to biblical commandments. Participants in Study 2 also rated how characteristic nonreligious positive and negative trait terms were of the self and others. Humility was operationalized as the magnitude of difference between individuals’ evaluations of self and other. Overvaluing the self in relation to others or undervaluing others in relation to the self was considered evidence of less humility. Participants rated the self to be more adherent to biblical commandments than others (the holier-than-thou effect) and rated the self to be more positive and less negative than others (the self-other bias). In both studies, intrinsic religiousness was associated with an increase in the tendency to rate the self as more adherent to biblical commandments than others. Quest was associated with a slight decrease in the magnitude of the holier-than-thou effect. Religious motivations did not account for unique variation in the general self-other bias. Irrespective of motivations for being religious, however, highly religious people (i.e., upper thirds on general religiousness and religious fundamentalism) more so than less religious people (i.e., lower thirds on general religiousness and religious fundamentalism) rated the self to be better on nonreligious attributes than others.

Associations Between Religious Orientation and Varieties of Sexual Experience

This study examined associations between religious orientation, newly discovered sexual dimensions of personality, and other sexual desires. All participants (n = 161) completed measures of religious orientation, sociosexuality, seven sexual personality dimensions, short-term and long-term mating desires, and mate-poaching behavior. Participants also completed scales assessing social desirability and the Big Five personality factors. Intrinsic religious orientation was positively associated with more restricted sexuality and desire (i.e., decreased sociosexuality, less desire for a large number of sex partners across time). Extrinsic religious orientation was positively associated with more unrestricted sexuality description and desire (i.e., increased sociosexuality and mate poaching; decreased sexual restraint and relationship exclusivity). Both religious orientations accounted for unique variation in sexual dimensions of the self when gender, socially desirable responding, and the Big Five personality factors were statistically controlled. As such, multidimensional measures of religiosity could be theoretically important to include in future scientific research on sexuality and personal relationships. The primary purpose of this study was to determine how intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation correlate with recently identified sexual dimensions of personality (Schmitt and Buss 2000), short-term and long-term sexual desires (Buss and Schmitt 1993), and experiences of mate poaching—attracting a person who is already in a relationship (Schmitt and Buss 2001). We also investigated whether intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation account for unique variation in these sexuality dimensions when controlling for gender (cf. Oliver and Hyde 1993), the “Big Five” personality traits (McCrae and John 1992), and social desirability (Paulhus 1988). DIMENSIONS OF RELIGIOSITY AND THEIR RELATION TO SEXUALITY

Humble persons are more helpful than less humble persons: Evidence from three studies

Connections between humility and other prosocial qualities led us to develop a humility–helpfulness hypothesis. In three studies, humble persons were more helpful than less humble persons. In Study 1, participants (n = 117) completed self-report measures of humility, the Big Five, and helpfulness. In Study 2, participants (n = 90) completed an implicit measure of humility and were presented with an unexpected opportunity to help someone in need. In Study 3, participants (n = 103) completed self-report and implicit measures of humility and were presented a similar helping opportunity. Humility and helpfulness correlated positively when personality and impression management were controlled. Humble participants helped more than did less humble participants even when agreeableness and desirable responding were statistically controlled. Further, implicit humility uniquely predicted helping behavior in an altruistic motivation condition.

The Relationship Between Religious Orientation, Right-Wing Authoritarianism, and Implicit Sexual Prejudice

The relationship between intrinsic, extrinsic, and quest religious orientations, right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), and implicit and explicit attitudes toward homosexual individuals were examined within a sample of predominantly Protestant college students in the United States. Implicit attitudes were measured with the Implicit Association Test, a computer program that recorded reaction times as participants categorized symbols (of heterosexual and homosexual individuals) and adjectives (good or bad words). Participants displayed fairly negative implicit and explicit attitudes toward homosexual individuals (i.e., sexual prejudice). Intrinsic religious orientation uniquely predicted increased explicit sexual prejudice (when extrinsic, quest, and impression management were statistically controlled), and RWA appeared to mediate this effect. In contrast, the positive relationship between intrinsic religion and implicit sexual prejudice did not disappear when controlling for RWA. Although RWA seemed to be related to self-reports of prejudice, intrinsic religious orientation was uniquely related to automatic negative attitudes toward homosexual individuals.

Differences in Attitudes Toward Outgroups in Religious and Nonreligious Contexts in a Multinational Sample: A Situational Context Priming Study

Researchers in the psychology of religion have begun utilizing priming methods to investigate the effects of the salience of religious concepts. These tightly controlled laboratory studies have demonstrated that priming religion may increase intergroup bias in both religious and nonreligious persons. The present study examined this possibility in a religiously and culturally diverse population using ecologically valid methods. Participants were recruited as they passed by either a religious or nonreligious structure in Western Europe. Participants in the religious context self-reported more negative attitudes toward non-Christian groups, more conservative political attitudes, and more personal religiousness and spirituality regardless of their personal belief in God. Results are discussed in terms of intergroup bias and salience of religious norms and stereotypes across cultures.