Walter G. Stephan

The Role of Empathy in Improving Intergroup Relations

This article analyzes the role that empathy can play in improving intergroup relations. Three types of empathy are defined: cognitive empathy and twotypes of emotional empathy, reactive and parallel. Research indicating that empathy causes prosocial behavior is reviewed, along with studies indicating that training can be used to increase levels of empathic skills. Intergroup relations programs that employ empathy are also reviewed. Studies of the effects of empathizing with outgroup members on prejudice are discussed, andseveral processes by which empathy may mediate changes in prejudice are presented (e.g., reducing perceived dissimilarity and anxiety concerning the outgroup) and cognitive dissonance. The ways in which empathy can be introduced into intergroup relations programs are discussed, along with a series of recommendations for its implementation.

The Role of Threats in the Racial Attitudes of Blacks and Whites

This study employed the integrated threat theory of intergroup attitudes to examine the attitudes of Black and White students toward the other racial group. This theory synthesizes previous research on the relationships of threats to intergroup attitudes. Structural equation modeling revealed that for both racial groups, realistic threats, symbolic threats, and intergroup anxiety predicted attitudes toward the other group. To varying degrees, the effects of negative contact, strength of ingroup identity, perceptions of intergroup conflict, perceived status inequality, and negative stereotyping on negative racial attitudes were mediated by the three threat variables. The model accounted for more variance in the negative attitudes of Whites toward Blacks than in the negative attitudes of Blacks toward Whites. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Prejudice toward Immigrants to Spain and Israel An Integrated Threat Theory Analysis

An integrated threat theory composed of four variables was used to predict attitudes toward immigrant groups in Spain and Israel. The four threats are symbolic threats based on value differences between groups; realistic threats to the power, resources, and well-being of the in-group; anxiety concerning social interaction with out-group members; and feelings of threat arising from negative stereotypes of the out-group. All four threats were significant predictors of attitudes toward one or more of the immigrant groups. It was predicted, and found, that intergroup anxiety and negative stereotypes were more powerful and consistent predictors of prejudicial attitudes toward immigrants than were realistic threats or symbolic threats. The implications of the theory for the causes and reduction of prejudice were discussed.

Integrated Threat Theory and Intercultural Attitudes Mexico and the United States

In this study, the integrated threat theory of prejudice was employed to examine Americans’ and Mexicans’ attitudes toward one another. According to the theory, four types of threat (realistic, symbolic, intergroup anxiety, and negative stereotypes) cause prejudice. These threats are thought to be caused in part by the amount and quality of intergroup contact. The results of two path analyses indicated that all four threats were significant predictors of attitudes in one sample or the other. Both the amount and quality of contact affected some types of threats. In particular, the quality of intergroup contact (voluntary, positive, individualized, and equal status) appears to play an important role in both intergroup anxiety and attitudes toward the other group.

Preferred Styles of Conflict Resolution Mexico and the United States

This study examined cultural differences in preferences for conflict resolution styles using the dual-concern model. It was found that students in a collectivistic culture (Mexico) preferred conflict resolution styles that emphasized concern for the outcomes of others (accommodation and collaboration) to a greater degree than did students from an individualistic culture (United States). Consistent with this greater display of concern for others, the Mexican students scored significantly higher than the U.S. students on scales measuring interdependence of the self. However, they also scored higher on a scale measuring the independence of the self, suggesting that independence of the self and interdependence of the self may be separate dimensions, rather than representing a continuum. Correlational findings suggested that for interpersonal conflicts, avoidance may reflect a concern for others, rather than a lack of concern for others, as postulated by the dual-concern model.

Beliefs in Conspiracies

This study used canonical correlation to examine the relationship of 11 individual difference variables to two measures of beliefs in conspiracies. Undergraduates were administered a questionnaire that included these two measures (beliefs in specific conspiracies and attitudes toward the existence of conspiracies) and scales assessing the 11 variables. High levels of anomie, authoritarianism, and powerlessness, along with a low level of self-esteem, were related to beliefs in specific conspiracies, whereas high levels of external locus of control and hostility, along with a low level of trust, were related to attitudes toward the existence of conspiracies in general. These findings support the idea that beliefs in conspiracies are related to feelings of alienation, powerlessness, hostility, and being disadvantaged. There was no support for the idea that people believe in conspiracies because they provide simplified explanations of complex events. History is a conspiracy, set in motion by demonic forces of almost transcendent power. (Hofstadter, 1965, p. 29) Conspiracies involve multiple actors working together in secret to achieve hidden goals that are perceived to be unlawful or malevolent (Zonis & Joseph, 1994). Beliefs in conspiracies abound in our society, as they do in other societies (Graumann & Moscovici, 1987; Hofstadter, 1965; Moynihan, 1985; Robins & Post, 1997; Zonis & Joseph, 1994). For instance, national opinion polls generally find that 85 to 90% of Americans believe that Lee Harvey Oswald did not act alone in killing President Kennedy (Goertzel, 1994). A random sample of New Jersey

Anxiety in intergroup relations: a comparison of anxiety/uncertainty management theory and integrated threat theory

Abstract In this article we review two theories in which anxiety and its relationship to intergroup relations play a central role: anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory and the integrated threat theory (ITT) of prejudice. The antecedents and consequences of anxiety in each theory are presented and comparisons between the theories are drawn. AUM specifies a greater range of antecedents, while ITT specifies a greater range of threats. The theories differ in the conceptualizations of the effects of anxiety with AUM holding that anxiety often has beneficial effects on intergroup relations and ITT arguing that anxiety typically has detrimental effects. AUM examines communication as the primary effect of anxiety whereas ITT focuses on prejudice. Possible reconciliations between the theories are discussed along with directions for future research.

Cognition and Affect in Stereotyping: Parallel Interactive Networks

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses cognition and affect in stereotyping. It presents a network model of stereotype-related cognitions and that of the affect and cognition. Perhaps the most basic issue to address concerning the relationship between cognition and the affect in stereotyping is whether the two are independent, form a unitary system, or operate as parallel systems. Independence would seem to be unlikely, except under special circumstances. If the cognitive and affective networks of stereotypes were independent, the affective responses to a stimulus would not be mediated by categorization. Instead, they would be primitive responses to the appearance and behavior of others. Independence is plausible in the case of some spontaneous positive and negative affective reactions. Cognition and affect are also unlikely to be a totally unitary system in which the cognitive and the affective nodes completely overlap. In such a system, cognition and affect would be indistinguishable.

Antecedents of intergroup anxiety in Asian-Americans and Hispanic-Americans

Abstract A model is presented in which prior intergroup relations and prior individual cognitions are hypothesized to determine the amount of anxiety experienced in intergroup interactions. These hypotheses were tested with Asian-Americans and Hispanics. It was found that Asian-Americans expressed more anxiety about interacting with Caucasians than did Hispanics. They also reported more negative attitudes toward Caucasians, less positive relations, and fewer positive contacts with Caucasians than did Hispanics. Low levels of contact were associated with high levels of intergroup anxiety in both groups. For Asian-Americans, negative relations with Caucasians and high ethnocentrism were also associated with high levels of intergroup anxiety. For Hispanics, low relative status and stereotyping were associated with high levels of intergroup anxiety.

The measurement of racial and ethnic identity

Abstract In this paper we examine some conceptual and methodological problems associated with the measurement of racial and ethnic identity. We discuss the initial use of racial terms, examine early racial classification systems and the bases for these systems. We then consider the characteristics of racial and ethnic identity and address common problems of ethnic classification today. We argue for a classification system based on self identification, and we review some current self-identity measures.