Werner Pitsch

The frequency of doping in elite sport: Results of a replication study

The difficulty of measuring the prevalence of doping in elite sport is a recurring topic in the scientific literature on doping. The Randomized Response Technique is a method for asking such embarrassing or even threatening questions while allowing the respondents to answer honestly. It was used to measure the prevalence of doping among German squad athletes by Pitsch et al. (2005, 2007). In a replication study with better sampling control, it was possible to replicate the general trend of the data from the 2005 study. Nevertheless, there are differences in the details between the two sets of findings. An additional explorative analysis reveals that gender has an important impact on doping decisions. Most theories of doping, especially those derived from systems theory or economic game theory address neither the central findings nor the influence of gender. Based on these findings, we will discuss questions of theory development in relation to empirical evidence.

Doping in elite sports in Germany: results of a www survey

Abstract It is still unknown how many top-level athletes use banned drugs or practices. In a www survey, we used the randomized response technique to shed light on this issue. With the question “Have you ever used banned substances or methods in order to enhance your performance?”, we established a lower interval limit of 25.8% and an upper limit of 48.1%. In the current season we found at the lower end of the scale 20.4% and at the upper end 38.7% of athletes who admit to using illegal drugs or methods. Throughout their whole athletic career, we calculated 51.9% honest non-dopers and in the current season 61.3%.

“The science of doping” revisited: Fallacies of the current anti-doping regime

Abstract Biomedical doping tests specifically, as well as doping test practises as a whole, have severe shortcomings which are based upon the fact that test procedures are in principle imperfect. With the help of Bayesian logic, it can be shown that the interpretation of doping test results is far from trivial with reference to individual athletes and single doping tests, but that these tests can reveal results which can be fairly dependable when it comes to estimating the prevalence of doping. Even if multiple tests are conducted and the samples are analyzed repeatedly for substance abuse, the need for positive A- and B-sample analysis is a strong argument in assuming that positive-tested athletes are guilty. However, this does not save an anti-doping policy which relies on increasing numbers of doping tests all over the world from the problem of false positive tests, which becomes the more severe the better anti-doping works in terms of lowering doping prevalence through deterrence. The considerations based on test theory and Bayesian logic lead to important ethical questioning of anti-doping policies.

Voluntary engagement in sports clubs: A behavioral model and some empirical evidence:

Voluntary engagement is an important prerequisite for the production of club goods. Although unpaid, the individual decision for or against voluntary engagement can be regarded and formally modeled as a deliberate act of social exchange using elements of behavioral economics. We lay out a simple behavioral model that captures in a stylized way several motives (consumption of the club good, social recognition, human capital, etc.) that may explain why individuals volunteer. We then use results from an interview study to assess the quantitative importance of the different motives, and to shed light on dimensions along which the model can be extended in future research.

A New Method to Individualize Monitoring of Muscle Recovery in Athletes

PURPOSE Assessment of muscle recovery is essential for the daily fine-tuning of training load in competitive sports, but individual differences may limit the diagnostic accuracy of group-based reference ranges. This article reports an attempt to develop individualized reference ranges using a Bayesian approach comparable to that developed for the Athlete Biological Passport. METHODS Urea and creatine kinase (CK) were selected as indicators of muscle recovery. For each parameter, prior distributions and repeated-measures SDs were characterized based on data of 883 squad athletes (1758 data points, 1-8 per athlete, years 2013-2015). Equations for the individualization procedure were adapted from previous material to allow for discrimination of 2 physiological states (recovered vs nonrecovered). Evaluation of classificatory performance was carried out using data from 5 consecutive weekly microcycles in 14 elite junior swimmers and triathletes. Blood samples were collected every Monday (recovered) and Friday according to the repetitive weekly training schedule over 5 wk. On the group level, changes in muscle recovery could be confirmed by significant differences in urea and CK and validated questionnaires. Group-based reference ranges were derived from that same data set to avoid overestimating the potential benefit of individualization. RESULTS For CK, error rates were significantly lower with individualized classification (P vs group-based: test-pass error rate P = .008; test-fail error rate P < .001). For urea, numerical improvements in error rates failed to reach significance. CONCLUSIONS Individualized reference ranges seem to be a promising tool to improve accuracy of monitoring muscle recovery. Investigating application to a larger panel of indicators is warranted.

Repeated testing for the assessment of individual response to exercise training

Observed response to regular exercise training differs widely between individuals even in tightly controlled research settings. However, the respective contributions of random error and true interindividual differences as well as the relative frequency of nonresponders are disputed. Specific challenges of analyses on the individual level as well as a striking heterogeneity in definitions may partly explain these inconsistent results. Repeated testing during the training phase specifically addresses the requirements of analyses on the individual level. Here we report a first implementation of this innovative design amendment in a head-to-head comparison of existing analytical approaches. To allow for comparative implementation of approaches we conducted a controlled endurance training trial (1 yr walking/jogging, 3 days/wk for 45 min with 60% heart rate reserve) in healthy, untrained subjects ( n = 36, age = 46 ± 8 yr; body mass index 24.7 ± 2.7 kg/m2; V̇o2max 36.6 ± 5.4). In the training group additional V̇o2max tests were conducted after 3, 6, and 9 mo. Duration of the control condition was 6 mo due to ethical constraints. General efficacy of the training intervention could be verified by a significant increase in V̇o2max in the training group ( P < 0.001 vs. control). Individual training response of relevant magnitude (>0.2 × baseline variability in V̇o2max) could be demonstrated by several approaches. Regarding the classification of individuals, only 11 of 20 subjects were consistently classified, demonstrating remarkable disagreement between approaches. These results are in support of relevant interindividual variability in training efficacy and stress the limitations of a responder classification. Moreover, this proof-of-concept underlines the need for tailored methodological approaches for well-defined problems. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This work reports a first implementation of a repeated testing training trial for the investigation of individual response. This design amendment was recently proposed to address specifically the statistical requirements of analyses on the individual level. Moreover, a comprehensive comparison of previously published methods exemplifies the striking heterogeneity of existing approaches.

Soziologische und ökonomische Funktion von Grenzwerten – eine kurze Skizze

Neben der Bewahrung der olympischen Idee und der Organisation der Olympischen Spiele liegt die Vermarktung des Wettbewerbs im Aufgabenbereich des IOC. Hierbei wird jedoch nicht nur die sportliche Leistung im Wettkampf vermarktet, sondern ein komplementares Gut, bestehend aus der sportlichen (Hochst-)Leistung und dem Glauben an die regelkonforme Erbringung dieser Leistung. Im Falle des Dopings besteht das Problem, dass der Regelbruch durch die Anwendung unerlaubter Substanzen vom Zuschauer der Wettbewerbe nicht unmittelbar erkannt werden kann, sondern fruhestens nach der Auswertung der Dopingproben sichtbar wird. Doping fuhrt somit in Bezug auf die Vermarktung des Kuppelproduktes (Leistung und ehrliche Leistungserbringung) zu einem periodenubergreifenden Problem. Der Beitrag betrachtet die daraus entstehenden Spannungen im IOC und wie diese auf Athleten- und Anbieterebene unter Wahrung der Einkommenschancen bewaltigt werden. Im Detail wird untersucht, durch welche besonderen Vertrauenseigenschaften der olympische Sport gekennzeichnet ist, welche Funktion der Glaube an die Regeltreue der Leistung hat und wie dieser Glaube produziert wird, sowie welche Funktion dabei Grenzwerte haben. Im Anschluss daran wird ein Formalisierungsansatz vorgestellt, welcher versucht, die Nutzen maximierenden Entscheidungen der drei Interessengruppierungen im Kontext des olympischen Sports, namlich Veranstalter, Athleten und Zuschauer, abzubilden. Hierbei wird der Nutzen, den die Zuschauer aus dem olympischen Sport ziehen, in den Fokus der Betrachtung geruckt. Der maximale Zuschauernutzen entsteht genau unter der Bedingung, dass wenige Dopingtests vorgenommen werden.

Sport-Induced Substance Use—An Empirical Study to the Extent within a German Sports Association

In cooperation with the Sports Association of the Palatinate (SBP), a survey was conducted on substance use by recreational and amateur athletes. Distribution of the online questionnaire took place by means of chain-referral sampling, and questions on substance use were presented using the randomized response technique (RRT) to protect the anonymity of respondents and prevent socially desirable answers. The estimated lowest limit for the population share for use of prohibited substances during the last season (4%) and for lifetime use (3.6%) did not differ significantly. Approximately 21% of respondents had used substances for training or competitions that were taken for a purpose other than performance enhancement (e.g., to improve their mood or to help with recuperation from a minor injury or illness) in the last year. 49% had done so at some point in their life.

Bewegungsmangel als soziales Problem

Zusammenfassung Die Konstruktion sozialer Probleme folgt rekonstruierbaren sozialen Mustern und verläuft in der Regel wert- und interessengeleitet. Dies gilt auch für den Diskurs um einen Bewegungsmangel von Kindern und Jugendlichen nebst den erwarteten gesundheitlichen Folgen. Der Frage, welche Deutungen die öffentliche Diskussion dieses Problems dominieren und welche Akteure maßgeblich zu dieser Etablierung beigetragen haben, wird ebenso Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt wie der Frage nach der im Zuge steigender Drittmittelbedeutung zunehmend interessengetriebenen Position des Wissenschaftlers. Zudem zeigt sich dabei auch eine besondere Funktion von Krisen- und Defizitannahmen im Rahmen (sport-)pädagogischer Argumentationen. Summary Typically, conceptualizations of social problems emerge following recurring social patterns, usually guided by specific values and interests. This also holds for the discussions surrounding a “lack of exercise” in young people and their “sedentary lifestyle”, and of the health problems that are expected to result from this. In the present paper, we examine interpretations of this problem that have dominated the public discussion and how they are reinforced and stabilized. Furthermore, we look at which actors have helped to establish these interpretations, focusing in particular on the interest-driven role of researchers as a result of the increasing dependence of universities on external funding. Additionally, we show how the assumptions of crises and deficits in young people function in legitimizing specific lines of argumentation in (physical) education.

Sportwissenschaft als Kirche der Vernunft und ihre Gläubigen – die normativen Grundlagen wissenschaftlicher Rationalität

In einer wissenschaftlichen Disziplin, die als angewandte Wissenschaft im kalten Krieg die Uberlegenheit des jeweiligen Blocks symbolisch auf dem Felde des Sports ermoglichen und stutzen sollte, war es von jeher schwierig, den Grundsatzen des Ethos der Forschung uneinge-schrankt und bedingungslos zu folgen. Diese Erwartungen der sogenannten Praxis an die universitare Sportwissenschaft erhohen im Konzert mit den zunehmenden Ausensteuerungen der Universitat die Chance, dass affirmative Befunde geliefert werden. In diesem Spannungsgeflecht reduziert eine strenge Orientierung an den CUDOS-Normen Mertons (1985) die Chancen auf affirmative Befunde, gleichzeitig aber ist auch die Chance auf innerwissenschaftliche Anerkennung im Verhaltnis zu vielen anderen universitaren Wissenschaftsdisziplinen reduziert. So existiert Sportwissenschaft in der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft als eigene zu fordernde Disziplin gar nicht. Insofern ist eher die Verwendung der Zeit fur den Konsum medialer Anerkennung bzw. der Anerkennung der sportlichen Praxis zu erwarten als vergleichsweise der Konsum von Zeit fur die Produktion wissenschaftsinterner Anerkennung. Zwei Grunde begunstigen diesen Sachverhalt. Erstens entwickelt sich die universitare Wissenschaft so, dass der Konsum externer Anerkennung zunehmend bedeutsamer wird, und zweitens haben Sportwissenschaftler haufig eine gewisse Nahe zum Gegenstand Sport, geraten also in der Balancierung von Nahe und Distanz tendenziell in Richtung Nahe, was wiederum durch die in der Disziplin als angewandter Wissenschaft angelegte Orientierung an der Praxis verstarkt wird.