Yaowu Hu

Earliest evidence for commensal processes of cat domestication.

Significance Domestic cats are one of the most popular pets worldwide, but little is known about their domestication. This study of cats living 5,300 y ago at the agricultural village of Quanhucun, China provides the earliest known evidence for mutualistic relationships between people and cats. Isotopic data demonstrate that humans, rodents, and the cats ate substantial amounts of millet-based foods, with cats preying on grain-eating animals. One cat was old and one ate less meat and more millet than others, suggesting it scavenged leftovers or was fed. Diverse data demonstrate rodent threats to stored grain, indicating cats were advantageous to farmers, whereas food in villages was attractive to cats. These findings provide evidence for commensal processes of cat domestication. Domestic cats are one of the most popular pets globally, but the process of their domestication is not well understood. Near Eastern wildcats are thought to have been attracted to food sources in early agricultural settlements, following a commensal pathway to domestication. Early evidence for close human–cat relationships comes from a wildcat interred near a human on Cyprus ca. 9,500 y ago, but the earliest domestic cats are known only from Egyptian art dating to 4,000 y ago. Evidence is lacking from the key period of cat domestication 9,500–4,000 y ago. We report on the presence of cats directly dated between 5560–5280 cal B.P. in the early agricultural village of Quanhucun in Shaanxi, China. These cats were outside the wild range of Near Eastern wildcats and biometrically smaller, but within the size-range of domestic cats. The δ13C and δ15N values of human and animal bone collagen revealed substantial consumption of millet-based foods by humans, rodents, and cats. Ceramic storage containers designed to exclude rodents indicated a threat to stored grain in Yangshao villages. Taken together, isotopic and archaeological data demonstrate that cats were advantageous for ancient farmers. Isotopic data also show that one cat ate less meat and consumed more millet-based foods than expected, indicating that it scavenged among or was fed by people. This study offers fresh perspectives on cat domestication, providing the earliest known evidence for commensal relationships between people and cats.

Isotopic perspectives (δ13C, δ15N, δ34S) of diet, social complexity, and animal husbandry during the proto‐shang period (ca. 2000–1600 BC) of China

OBJECTIVESnTo examine dietary patterns and animal husbandry practices and assess the links between human diet and sex, age, burial direction/position, and social status (as inferred by type of grave goods) during the transformative Proto-Shang (ca. 2000-1600 BC) period of China.nnnMATERIALS AND METHODSnStable isotope ratios of carbon (δ(13) C), nitrogen (δ(15) N), and sulfur (δ(34) S) were analyzed from human (nu2009=u200983) and animal (nu2009=u200936) bone collagen at the site of Nancheng in Hebei Province, China.nnnRESULTSnThe Proto-Shang population consumed a predominately C4 diet (δ(13) Cu2009=u2009-6.8u2009±u20090.4‰; δ(15) Nu2009= 9.4u2009±u20090.6‰), but a single individual (M70) had a mixed C3 /C4 diet (δ(13) Cu2009=u2009-14.9‰; δ(15) Nu2009=u200910.1‰). The δ(34) S measurement of M70 (8.8‰) is similar to the local animals (8.2u2009±u20092.6‰) and the other members of the population (7.0u2009±u20090.8‰) suggesting this individual may not have been a migrant even though the burial direction (north-south) and position (flexed) was different than the majority of the graves in the cemetery.nnnDISCUSSIONnFrom comparison with the faunal bone collagen stable isotope results, the Nancheng population ate millets with varying levels of animal protein consumption focused primarily on pigs and possibly cattle and dogs, but sheep/goats, and deer were not eaten in significant amounts. Analysis of the isotopic results in relation to other contemporary sites such as Liuzhuang and Xinzhai show strikingly similar patterns, suggesting that the sheep/goats were likely raised mainly for their secondary products (e.g., wool). No link between diet and sex was found at the population level, but when the data were sorted by age and sex, the older males (>40u2009years old) were found to have significantly lower δ(13) C values (-6.6u2009±u20090.3‰; nu2009=u200918) compared to the younger males (<40u2009years old) (-7.3u2009±u20090.5‰; nu2009=u20098). Further, no significant correlations between diet and burial direction/position or social status (based on the type of grave goods) were found at Nancheng, possibly indicating that the dietary social stratification of the later Shang and Zhou Dynasties had yet to be established in Chinese society at this time. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:433-445, 2016..

The subsistence patterns of the Shengedaliang site (~4,000 yr BP) revealed by stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in northern Shaanxi, China

In order to explore subsistence patterns in northern Shaanxi Province around 4,000 yr BP, 28 human and 24 animal bones from the Shengedaliang site were sampled for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratio analysis. The results show that most people primarily subsisted on C4 resources, e.g. millet and millet-related animal products, despite the fact that there was some intake of C3 plants by some individuals. Stable nitrogen isotope values indicate that there were differences in meat consumption between individuals at the site. Pigs were mainly foddered with millet and millet byproducts, as well as some cattle, according to their high δ13C values. However, most cattle and the sheep/goats consumed wild C3 plants at Shengedaliang. Our above findings indicates that subsistence patterns in northern Shaanxi around 4,000 yr BP were characterized by millet farming, while the grassland animal husbandry, e.g. cattle and sheep/goats raising, displayed very little contribution to local economy. The intensive millet farming in northern Shaanxi provided enough food for population growth, ensured the accumulation of wealth, and consequently accelerated social differentiation and complexity.

Breastfeeding, weaning, and dietary practices during the Western Zhou Dynasty (1122–771 BC) at Boyangcheng, Anhui Province, China

OBJECTIVESnHere we investigate breastfeeding and weaning practices and adult dietary habits at the Western Zhou Dynasty (1122-771 BC) site of Boyangcheng () located in Anhui Province, China. In addition, we utilize the differences in bone collagen turnover rates between rib and long bones from the same individual to examine past life histories, such as changes in diet or residence.nnnMATERIALS AND METHODSnBone collagen from both the rib and long bones (either femora or humeri) of 42 individuals was measured for stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ13 C) and nitrogen (δ15 N). In addition, δ13 C and δ15 N values are reported for 35 animals (dogs, cows, horses, pigs, and deer).nnnRESULTSnThe human δ13 C values range from -20.7‰ to -12.0‰ with a mean value of -18.8u2009±u20091.6‰. The human δ15 N values range from 9.1‰ to 13.4‰ with a mean value of 10.9u2009±u20091.0‰. The animals display a wide range of δ13 C (-21.5‰ to -8.2‰; -15.8u2009±u20094.5‰) and δ15 N values (4.0‰ to 9.5‰; 6.5u2009±u20091.8‰).nnnCONCLUSIONSnThe adult δ13 C and δ15 N results indicate that mixed C3 (rice) and C4 (millet) terrestrial diets with varying levels of animal protein (mostly pigs and deer) were consumed. The elevated subadult δ15 N results return to adult levels by approximately 3-4 years of age, indicating that the weaning process was completed during this period. Individuals between 2 and 10 years old, with lower δ13 C and δ15 N results than the adult mean, possibly consumed more plant-based diets, and this is consistent with Chinese medical teachings ∼1500 years later during the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907). The isotopic offsets between the ribs and long bones revealed that five adults experienced dramatic dietary shifts in their later lives, switching from predominately C3 /C4 to C3 diets. This research provides the first isotopic information about ancient Chinese breastfeeding and weaning practices and establishes a foundation for future studies to examine diachronic trends.

Millet manuring as a driving force for the Late Neolithic agricultural expansion of north China

Research in to the nature of Neolithic agriculture in China is often focused on topics such as the domestication and spread of cereal crops and the reconstruction of human and animal diets in the past. Field management practices, such as organic manuring, have not been systematically investigated in Chinese archaeology. Here we present an isotopic dataset for archaeological foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and common millet (Panicum miliaceum) grains as well as associated faunal remains (both domesticated and wild) from seven sites in the Baishui Valley of north China, in order to find direct evidence of organic manuring during the Late Neolithic period. The elevated nitrogen isotope values of the millet grains (5500-3500u2009cal BP) in comparison with the estimated local vegetation indicates that millets were organically manured by animal dung, mostly likely originating from domestic pigs. Considering the low nitrogen contents of loess soils and their unsuitability for intensive cultivation, this organic manuring by animal dung would have played a key role in maintaining soil productivity and crop yield, which was necessary to support the demands of agriculture and cultural expansion during the Late Neolithic on the Loess Plateau of China.

The influence of agriculture in the process of population integration and cultural interaction during the Eastern Zhou Period in central-south, Inner Mongolia: Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of human bones from the Dabaoshan cemetery, Helingeer County

Central-south Inner Mongolia, China, is highly sensitive to the cultural interactions between sedentary agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists during the Eastern Zhou Period (770–256 BC). The previous pattern of multiple cultures and diverse ethnic groups has been transformed to the increasingly dominated cultural system of Central Plain since the middle and late Warring States Period, when the states of Zhao and Qin have conquered the most parts of central-south Inner Mongolia. However, the variation of subsistence strategies during this historical process has never been evaluated. Particularly, as the typical representative of Central Plain cultures, the effect of intensive millet agriculture is still unknown in the process of population integration and culture interaction. Thus, to explore the shift of subsistence pattern, carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bone collagen from Dabaoshan site (410–180 BC) have been performed. The isotopic result indicates a large amount of C4-based animal protein consumed by Dabaoshan humans. According to the archaeological backgrounds, we propose the Dabaoshan persons intensively relied on the millet agriculture and developed the agro-pastoral economy, which hinted the comprehensive influences from Central plain civilizations in late Warring States Period. Further compared with other published isotopic data in the same region during different periods, we suggest the millet agriculture has played the positive role in the process of population integration and culture fusion in central-south Inner Mongolia during the Eastern Zhou Period.

Extraction of soluble collagen and its feasibility in the palaeodietary research

In current palaeodietary research, gelatinization is the main method to extract insoluble collagen (ISC) from ancient bones. However, the degradation products of ISC, i.e., soluble collagen (SC), is often neglected and abandoned. In this work, we try to separate the extracts of ancient bones using gel chromatography and compare the contents of carbon and nitrogen, atomic C/N ratio, and stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic values of the extracts from three peaks to determine which peak can be attributed to SC. At last, the potential application of SC in palaeodietary research is discussed based on the comparison of stable isotopic values between ISC and SC. Among the three peaks, the second with the retention time between 17.5 min and 27.5 min had the most broad peak shape, indicating that the molecular weights of proteins collected were most variable. Besides, the contents of carbon and nitrogen and atomic C/N ratio of extracts in this peak were closest to the corresponding ISC. Based on the above, we conclude that the extract in second peak is SC. More important, the δ13C and δ15N values of ISC and SC are very similar. For ISC and SC with atomic C/N ratios within the normal range (2.9–3.6), the mean difference of δ13C value was only (0.3±0.2)‰ (n=2) while δ15N value was (0.6±0.1)‰ (n=2). Although the atomic C/N ratios of some SC are slightly beyond the normal range, the mean differences of δ13C and δ15N values were still only (0.4±0.1)‰ and (0.3±0)‰ (n=2) respectively. These isotopic differences are quite below the isotope fractionation in one trophic level (δ13C values of 1‰–1.5‰ and δ15N values of 3‰–5‰), suggesting that SC had great application potentials in palaeodietary research.

Reply to Bar-Oz et al.: Commensalism and mutualism as early incentives for cat domestication

Our recent paper (1) draws attention to commensal and mutualistic processes of cat domestication, providing previously unidentified empirical evidence for these processes in an early agricultural village. Bar-Oz et al. (2) raise thoughtful questions regarding points that were not elucidated in detail in our paper. This gives us the opportunity to discuss some important issues in greater detail.