Yukari Nakamura

Growth Differentiation Factor-5 Promotes Brown Adipogenesis in Systemic Energy Expenditure

Although growth differentiation factor-5 (GDF5) has been implicated in skeletal development and joint morphogenesis in mammals, little is known about its functionality in adipogenesis and energy homeostasis. Here, we show a critical role of GDF5 in regulating brown adipogenesis for systemic energy expenditure in mice. GDF5 expression was preferentially upregulated in brown adipose tissues from inborn and acquired obesity mice. Transgenic overexpression of GDF5 in adipose tissues led to a lean phenotype and reduced susceptibility to diet-induced obesity through increased systemic energy expenditure. Overexpression of GDF5 facilitated the development of brown fat-like cells, called brite or beige cells, along with the expression of uncoupling protein-1 in inguinal subcutaneous white adipose tissue. In mutant mice harboring the dominant-negative GDF5, marked impairment in energy expenditure and thermogenesis was seen under obesogenic conditions. Recombinant GDF5 promoted brown adipogenesis through the mothers against decapentaplegic homolog (Smad) and peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) pathways after activation of bone morphogenetic protein receptor (BMPR). These results suggest that brown adipogenesis and energy homeostasis are both positively regulated by the GDF5/BMPR/Smad/PGC-1α signaling pathway in adipose tissues. Modulation of these pathways might be an effective therapeutic strategy for obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Repression of adipogenesis through promotion of Wnt/β-catenin signaling by TIS7 up-regulated in adipocytes under hypoxia

Although tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate induced sequence-7 (TIS7) has been identified as a co-activator/repressor of gene transcription in different eukaryotic cells, little attention has been paid to the functionality of TIS7 in adipocytes. Here, we evaluated the possible role of TIS7 in mechanisms underlying the regulation of adipogenesis. TIS7 expression was preferentially up-regulated in white adipose tissues (WAT) of obesity model mice as well as in pre-adipocytic 3T3-L1 cells cultured under hypoxic conditions. TIS7 promoter activity was selectively enhanced by activating transcription factor-6 (ATF6) among different transcription factors tested, while induction of TIS7 by hypoxic stress was markedly prevented by knockdown of ATF6 by shRNA in 3T3-L1 cells. Overexpression of TIS7 markedly inhibited Oil Red O staining and expression of particular adipogenic genes in 3T3-L1 cells. TIS7 synergistically promoted gene transactivation mediated by Wingless-type mouse mammary tumor virus integration site family (Wnt)/β-catenin, while blockade of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway by a dominant negative form of T-cell factor-4 (DN-TCF4) markedly prevented the inhibition of adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells with TIS7 overexpression. TIS7 predominantly interacted with β-catenin in the nucleus of WAT in the genetically obese ob/ob mice as well as in 3T3-L1 cells cultured under hypoxic conditions. Both knockdown of TIS7 by shRNA and introduction of DN-TCF4 similarly reversed the hypoxia-induced inhibition of adipogenic gene expression in 3T3-L1 cells. These findings suggest that TIS7 could play a pivotal role in adipogenesis through interacting with β-catenin to promote the canonical Wnt signaling in pre-adipocytes under hypoxic stress such as obesity.

Glutamate preferentially suppresses osteoblastogenesis than adipogenesis through the cystine/glutamate antiporter in mesenchymal stem cells.

We have shown that glutamate (Glu) signaling machineries, such as receptors (GluR) and transporters, are functionally expressed by mesenchymal stem cells, in addition to by their progeny cells such as osteoblasts and chondrocytes. Sustained exposure to Glu induced significant decreases in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and osteoblastic marker gene expression in the mesenchymal C3H10T1/2 stem cells infected with runt‐related transcription factor‐2 (Runx2) adenovirus, without markedly affecting Oil Red O staining for adipocytes in cells cultured with adipogenic inducers. In cells with Runx2 adenovirus, the cystine/Glu antiporter substrate cystine significantly prevented the decreases by Glu in both ALP staining and osteoblastic marker gene expression, with GluR agonists being ineffective. In cells with Runx2 adenovirus, Glu significantly decreased [14C]cystine uptake, intracellular glutathione (GSH) level, Runx2 recruitment to osteocalcin promoter and nuclear Runx2 protein level, respectively. Cystine again significantly prevented the decreases by Glu in both GSH levels and Runx2 recruitment. In mouse bone marrow stromal cells, Glu and a GSH depleter significantly decreased ALP staining without affecting Oil Red O staining. Knockdown of the cystine/Glu antiporter led to markedly decreased ALP staining and GSH levels, with concomitant prevention of the decrease by Glu, in cells with Runx2 adenovirus. These results suggest that Glu may play a role as a negative regulator at an early differentiation stage into osteoblasts than adipocytes through a mechanism relevant to nuclear translocation of Runx2 after regulation of intracellular GSH levels by the cystine/Glu antiporter expressed in mesenchymal stem cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 226: 652–665, 2011.

Positive Regulation by GABABR1 Subunit of Leptin Expression through Gene Transactivation in Adipocytes

Background The view that γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) plays a functional role in non-neuronal tissues, in addition to an inhibitory neurotransmitter role in the mammalian central nervous system, is prevailing, while little attention has been paid to GABAergic signaling machineries expressed by adipocytes to date. In this study, we attempted to demonstrate the possible functional expression of GABAergic signaling machineries by adipocytes. Methodology/Principal Findings GABAB receptor 1 (GABABR1) subunit was constitutively expressed by mouse embryonic fibroblasts differentiated into adipocytes and adipocytic 3T3-L1 cells in culture, as well as mouse white adipose tissue, with no responsiveness to GABABR ligands. However, no prominent expression was seen with mRNA for GABABR2 subunit required for heteromeric orchestration of the functional GABABR by any adipocytic cells and tissues. Leptin mRNA expression was significantly and selectively decreased in adipose tissue and embryonic fibroblasts, along with drastically reduced plasma leptin levels, in GABABR1-null mice than in wild-type mice. Knockdown by siRNA of GABABR1 subunit led to significant decreases in leptin promoter activity and leptin mRNA levels in 3T3-L1 cells. Conclusions/Significance Our results indicate that GABABR1 subunit is constitutively expressed by adipocytes to primarily regulate leptin expression at the transcriptional level through a mechanism not relevant to the function as a partner of heterodimeric assembly to the functional GABABR.

Differential regulation of cellular maturation in chondrocytes and osteoblasts by glycine

Previous studies have demonstrated the functional expression, by osteoblasts, of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors responsible for the promotion of cellular differentiation in bone. We have now evaluated the possible role of the endogenous co-agonist of NMDA receptors, glycine (Gly), in chondrogenesis. In ex vivo organotypic cultures of fetal mouse tibias, proximal and distal cartilaginous primordia were significantly increased in the presence of Gly, with the osteogenic center being unchanged. Exposure to Gly drastically increased mRNA expression of the calcified chondrocyte marker osteopontin, without markedly affecting that of a proliferating chondrocyte marker or a hypertrophic chondrocyte marker, as shown in organotypic cultures by in situ hybridization analysis. Gly significantly increased Ca2+ accumulation, osteopontin mRNA expression, and alkaline phosphatase activity in cultured rat costal chondrocytes, without significantly affecting those in cultured rat calvarial osteoblasts. The increase induced by Gly was significantly prevented by an NMDA receptor channel blocker and an antagonist at the Gly site on NMDA receptors, but not by an inhibitory Gly receptor antagonist or a Gly transporter inhibitor, in cultured chondrocytes. Constitutive mRNA expression was seen for NR1, NR2D, and NR3A subunits of NMDA receptors, but not for Gly receptors and transporters, in cultured chondrocytes. Corresponding immunoreactive proteins were detected for NR1 and NR2D subunits in cartilaginous zones of fetal mouse tibias. Thus, Gly might, at least in part, play a role as a trophic factor in the mechanisms associated with chondral calcification through the Gly site of NMDA receptors functionally expressed by chondrocytes in rodent cartilage.

Positive Regulation by γ-Aminobutyric Acid B Receptor Subunit-1 of Chondrogenesis through Acceleration of Nuclear Translocation of Activating Transcription Factor-4

Background: GABABR is functionally expressed in a variety of peripheral organs outside the central nervous system. Results: Mice defective in GABABR subunit-1 (GABABR1) show delayed calcification. Conclusion: GABABR1 molecule alone positively regulates chondrogenesis through accelerating nuclear translocation of activating transcription factor-4. Significance: GABABR1 is a target candidate for the drug therapy of bone diseases relevant to endochondral ossification impairments. A view that signaling machineries for the neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are functionally expressed by cells outside the central nervous system is now prevailing. In this study, we attempted to demonstrate functional expression of GABAergic signaling molecules by chondrocytes. In cultured murine costal chondrocytes, mRNA was constitutively expressed for metabotropic GABAB receptor subunit-1 (GABABR1), but not for GABABR2. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed the predominant expression of GABABR1 by prehypertrophic to hypertrophic chondrocytes in tibial sections of newborn mice. The GABABR agonist baclofen failed to significantly affect chondrocytic differentiation determined by Alcian blue staining and alkaline phosphatase activity in cultured chondrocytes, whereas newborn mice knocked out of GABABR1 (KO) showed a decreased body size and delayed calcification in hyoid bone and forelimb and hindlimb digits. Delayed calcification was also seen in cultured metatarsals from KO mice with a marked reduction of Indian hedgehog gene (Ihh) expression. Introduction of GABABR1 led to synergistic promotion of the transcriptional activity of activating transcription factor-4 (ATF4) essential for normal chondrogenesis, in addition to facilitating ATF4-dependent Ihh promoter activation. Although immunoreactive ATF4 was negligibly detected in the nucleus of chondrocytes from KO mice, ATF4 expression was again seen in the nucleus and cytoplasm after the retroviral introduction of GABABR1 into cultured chondrocytes from KO mice. In nuclear extracts of KO chondrocytes, a marked decrease was seen in ATF4 DNA binding. These results suggest that GABABR1 positively regulates chondrogenesis through a mechanism relevant to the acceleration of nuclear translocation of ATF4 for Ihh expression in chondrocytes.

Osteoblastic γ-Aminobutyric Acid, Type B Receptors Negatively Regulate Osteoblastogenesis toward Disturbance of Osteoclastogenesis Mediated by Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor κB Ligand in Mouse Bone

The prevailing view is that signaling machineries for the neurotransmitter GABA are also expressed by cells outside the CNS. In cultured murine calvarial osteoblasts, mRNA was constitutively expressed for both subunits 1 and 2 of metabotropic GABAB receptor (GABABR), along with inhibition by the GABABR agonist baclofen of cAMP formation, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and Ca2+ accumulation. Moreover, baclofen significantly inhibited the transactivation of receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) gene in a manner sensitive to a GABABR antagonist, in addition to decreasing mRNA expression of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP2), osteocalcin, and osterix. In osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells stably transfected with GABABR1 subunit, significant reductions were seen in ALP activity and Ca2+ accumulation, as well as mRNA expression of osteocalcin, osteopontin, and osterix. In cultured calvarial osteoblasts from GABABR1-null mice exhibiting low bone mineral density in tibia and femur, by contrast, both ALP activity and Ca2+ accumulation were significantly increased together with promoted expression of both mRNA and proteins for BMP2 and osterix. No significant change was seen in the number of multinucleated cells stained for tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase during the culture of osteoclasts prepared from GABABR1-null mice, whereas a significant increase was seen in the number of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive multinucleated cells in co-culture of osteoclasts with osteoblasts isolated from GABABR1-null mice. These results suggest that GABABR is predominantly expressed by osteoblasts to negatively regulate osteoblastogenesis through down-regulation of BMP2 expression toward disturbance of osteoclastogenesis after down-regulation of RANKL expression in mouse bone.

Osteoclastogenesis is negatively regulated by D-serine produced by osteoblasts

We have shown the functional expression by chondrocytes of serine racemase (SR) which is responsible for the synthesis of D‐serine (Ser) from L‐Ser in cartilage. In this study, we evaluated the possible functional expression of SR by bone‐forming osteoblasts and bone‐resorbing osteoclasts. Expression of SR mRNA was seen in osteoblasts localized at the cancellous bone surface in neonatal rat tibial sections and in cultured rat calvarial osteoblasts endowed to release D‐Ser into extracellular medium, but not in cultured osteoclasts differentiated from murine bone marrow progenitor cells. Sustained exposure to D‐Ser failed to significantly affect alkaline phosphatase activity and Ca2+ accumulation in cultured osteoblasts, but significantly inhibited differentiation and maturation in a concentration‐dependent manner at a concentration range of 0.1–1 mM without affecting cellular survival in cultured osteoclasts. By contrast, L‐Ser promoted osteoclastic differentiation in a manner sensitive to the inhibition by D‐Ser. Matured osteoclasts expressed mRNA for the amino acid transporter B0,+ (ATB0,+) and the system alanine, serine, and cysteine amino acid transporter‐2 (ASCT2), which are individually capable of similarly incorporating extracellular L‐ and D‐Ser. Knockdown of these transporters by siRNA prevented both the promotion by L‐Ser and the inhibition by D‐Ser of osteoclastic differentiation in pre‐osteoclastic RAW264.7 cells. These results suggest that D‐Ser may play a pivotal role in osteoclastogenesis through a mechanism related to the incorporation mediated by both ATB0,+ and ASCT2 of serine enantiomers in osteoclasts after the synthesis and subsequent release from adjacent osteoblasts. J. Cell. Physiol. 227: 3477–3487, 2012.

Negative regulation of osteoblastogenesis through downregulation of runt-related transcription factor-2 in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells with stable overexpression of the cystine/glutamate antiporter xCT subunit.

We have previously demonstrated that glutamate (Glu) suppresses cellular proliferation toward self‐renewal through a mechanism associated with intracellular GSH depletion mediated by the bidirectional cystine/Glu antiporter in osteoblastic MC3T3‐E1 cells cultured in the absence of differentiation inducers. To further evaluate the possible role of the antiporter in osteoblastogenesis, in this study, we have established stable transfectants of the xCT subunit of the antiporter in MC3T3‐E1 cells. Stable overexpression led to a significant facilitation of cellular proliferation determined by different indices with increased GSH levels and decreased ROS generation in addition to promoted [14C]cystine incorporation, while Glu failed to significantly inhibit cellular proliferation in stable xCT transfectants. In stable transfectants cultured under differentiation conditions, drastic decreases were invariably seen in Ca2+ accumulation, alkaline phosphatase activity and several osteoblastic marker gene expressions, in addition to downregulation of mRNA and corresponding protein for runt‐related transcription factor‐2 (Runx2). Runx2 promoter activity was significantly promoted by the introduction of Runx2 expression vector in a manner sensitive to the prevention by the co‐introduction of xCT expression vector in MC3T3‐E1 cells. In both MC3T3‐E1 cells and murine calvarial osteoblasts cultured with differentiation inducers, transient transfection with xCT siRNA significantly increased Runx2 protein expression along with decreases in xCT mRNA expression and 3‐(4,5‐dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyl‐2H‐tetrazolium bromide reduction. These results suggest that the cystine/Glu antiporter plays a pivotal role in cellular differentiation through a mechanism related to the regulation of transactivation of Runx2 essential for osteoblastogenesis toward maturation in osteoblastic cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 226: 2953–2964, 2011.

Transcriptional Modulator Ifrd1 Regulates Osteoclast Differentiation through Enhancing the NF-κB/NFATc1 Pathway.

ABSTRACT Bone homeostasis is maintained by the synergistic actions of bone-resorbing osteoclasts and bone-forming osteoblasts. Here, we show that the transcriptional coactivator/repressor interferon-related developmental regulator 1 (Ifrd1) is expressed in osteoclast lineages and represents a component of the machinery that regulates bone homeostasis. Ifrd1 expression was transcriptionally regulated in preosteoclasts by receptor activator of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL) through activator protein 1. Global deletion of murine Ifrd1 increased bone formation and decreased bone resorption, leading to a higher bone mass. Deletion of Ifrd1 in osteoclast precursors prevented RANKL-induced bone loss, although no bone loss was observed under normal physiological conditions. RANKL-dependent osteoclastogenesis was impaired in vitro in Ifrd1-deleted bone marrow macrophages (BMMs). Ifrd1 deficiency increased the acetylation of p65 at residues K122 and K123 via the inhibition of histone deacetylase-dependent deacetylation in BMMs. This repressed the NF-κB-dependent transcription of nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1), an essential regulator of osteoclastogenesis. These findings suggest that an Ifrd1/NF-κB/NFATc1 axis plays a pivotal role in bone remodeling in vivo and represents a therapeutic target for bone diseases.