Zachary J. Tempel

Radiographic and clinical outcomes following combined lateral lumbar interbody fusion and posterior segmental stabilization in patients with adult degenerative scoliosis

OBJECT A hybrid approach of minimally invasive lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF) followed by supplementary open posterior segmental instrumented fusion (PSIF) has shown promising early results in the treatment of adult degenerative scoliosis. Studies assessing the impact of this combined approach on correction of segmental and regional coronal angulation, sagittal realignment, maximum Cobb angle, restoration of lumbar lordosis, and clinical outcomes are needed. The authors report their results of this approach for correction of adult degenerative scoliosis. METHODS Twenty-six patients underwent combined LLIF and PSIF in a staged fashion. The patient population consisted of 21 women and 5 men. Ages ranged from 40 to 77 years old. Radiographic measurements including coronal angulation, pelvic incidence, lumbar lordosis, and sagittal vertical axis were taken preoperatively and 1 year postoperatively in all patients. Concurrently, the visual analog score (VAS) for back and leg pain, the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), and Short Form-36 (SF-36) Physical Component Summary (PCS) and Mental Component Summary (MCS) scores were used to assess clinical outcomes in 19 patients. RESULTS At 1-year follow-up, all patients who underwent combined LLIF and PSIF achieved statistically significant mean improvement in regional coronal angles (from 14.9° to 5.8°, p < 0.01) and segmental coronal angulation at all operative levels (p < 0.01). The maximum Cobb angle was significantly reduced postoperatively (from 41.1° to 15.1°, p < 0.05) and was maintained at follow-up (12.0°, p < 0.05). The mean lumbar lordosis-pelvic incidence mismatch was significantly improved postoperatively (from 15.0° to 6.92°, p < 0.05). Although regional lumbar lordosis improved (from 43.0° to 48.8°), it failed to reach statistical significance (p = 0.06). The mean sagittal vertical axis was significantly improved postoperatively (from 59.5 mm to 34.2 mm, p < 0.01). The following scores improved significantly after surgery: VAS for back pain (from 7.5 to 4.3, p < 0.01) and leg pain (from 5.8 to 3.1, p < 0.01), ODI (from 48 to 38, p < 0.01), and PCS (from 27.5 to 35.0, p = 0.01); the MCS score did not improve significantly (from 43.2 to 45.5, p = 0.37). There were 3 major and 10 minor complications. CONCLUSIONS A hybrid approach of minimally invasive LLIF and open PSIF is an effective means of achieving correction of both coronal and sagittal deformity, resulting in improvement of quality of life in patients with adult degenerative scoliosis.

Cervical and cervicomedullary spinal cord stimulation for chronic pain: efficacy and outcomes.

BACKGROUND The role for spinal cord stimulation (SCS) in the management of chronic spinal cord forms of pain involving cervical dermatomes or the cervicomedullary junction (CMJ) for facial pain remains largely uncharted. OBJECTIVE To review outcomes with cervical and CMJ SCS performed by a single surgeon, with particular emphasis on complications and efficacy. METHODS All patients that underwent cervical or CMJ SCS by the lead author were identified and follow-up obtained by telephone questionnaires. Patient demographics, surgical details, outcomes and complications for all patients identified were critically reviewed. RESULTS Of 121 patients identified that underwent at least trial SCS, 100 underwent permanent lead implantation. Indications for cervical SCS included brachial plexus lesions (8), complex regional pain syndrome (33), degenerative disc disease (4), failed neck surgery syndrome (23), chronic radiculopathy (6) and post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN) (1); for CMJ SCS, indications included trigeminal deafferetiation pain (10), trigeminal neuropathic pain (4), PHN (4) and occipital neuralgia (7). Pain relief was greater along the extremities than axially, and less in the occipital area than in the head or face. Mean pain reduction averaged 56.6% at a mean follow-up of 4.2 years. Of 24 revision surgeries required, 8 were for presumed lead migration or fracture. Complications included 4 CSF leaks, 5 wound infections, and 4 cases of persistent numbness or pain. Pain relief lasted an average of 3.6 years. CONCLUSION Cervical and CMJ SCS are safe and efficacious and may provide greater relief along the upper extremities than axially, and in the head rather than in the occipital region.

Preoperative prealbumin level as a risk factor for surgical site infection following elective spine surgery

Background: Nutritional status is a critical factor in patient outcomes in a variety of medical contexts. In the surgical fields, there is substantial evidence suggesting that clinical outcomes including infection risk and surgical efficacy may be affected by preoperative nutritional status. The purpose of this study is to evaluate preoperative serum prealbumin levels, the currently preferred serum biomarker of nutritional deficiency, in relation to the risk of developing a surgical site infection. Methods: A retrospective case–control series was conducted comparing prospectively collected preadmission serum prealbumin levels to the risk for surgical site infection following elective spine surgery. The analysis was conducted under an approved institutional quality assurance protocol. Patients were identified by querying the department billing codes for deep wound washouts over a 3-year period. A cohort of 32 patients with preoperative prealbumin levels who underwent spine surgery complicated by postoperative deep tissue infection was identified. This was compared against a case–control cohort of 74 patients who underwent spine surgery and did not experience postoperative infection. Clinical variables included demographic information, body mass index, smoking, diabetes, steroid use, length of the procedure, and length of hospital stay. The data were analyzed using multivariate Cox regression. Results: Two variables: Preoperative prealbumin < 20 and diabetes were both statistically significant predictors for the risk of developing a postoperative infection with hazard ratios of 2.12 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.03–4.37) and 2.22 (95% CI: 1.04–4.75), respectively. Conclusions: Our results reinforce the relationship between preoperative nutritional status and outcomes in elective spine surgery. The data indicate that preoperative prealbumin levels may be useful in risk stratification. Further study is needed to determine whether nutritional supplementation may reduce the risk of infection.

Prealbumin as a Serum Biomarker of Impaired Perioperative Nutritional Status and Risk for Surgical Site Infection after Spine Surgery

INTRODUCTION Impaired perioperative nutritional status has been shown to be an important predictor of surgical morbidity and is the earliest marker of nutritional deficiency. No study, however, has examined serum prealbumin as a surrogate marker of nutritional status in patients undergoing spine surgery. METHODS We performed a retrospective review of all patients who developed a postoperative deep wound infection after undergoing spine surgery at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center from January 2008 through December 2011. Demographics, preoperative diagnosis, type of surgery, perioperative serum prealbumin level, time to infection, number and type of debridement procedures, and length of hospital stay were recorded. RESULTS A total of 83 patients had prealbumin levels available at the time of presentation of infection. Mean patient age was 56 years, and 71% were women. Surgical treatment for the infection required between 1 and 13 debridements, and 21 (25%) of the 83 patients who had instrumentation placed at the time of the initial surgery required removal of their instrumentation. Inpatient hospitalizations were extended by an average of 13 days. Prealbumin levels were below normal in 82 (99%) of the 83 patients; levels were < 7 mg/dL in 24 patients, between 7 and 11 mg/dL in 32 patients, and between 11 and 19 mg/dL in 26 patients. CONCLUSIONS All patients except one who developed postoperative deep wound infection after spine surgery had serum prealbumin levels in the malnutrition range at the time of presentation. The current study suggests serum prealbumin levels may be an inexpensive screening biomarker for nutritional status and risk stratification for postoperative infection after spine surgery.

Sideline assessment tools for the evaluation of concussion in athletes: a review

Sports-related concussions, which have become more prevalent in the past decade, are an extremely common phenomenon in organized athletics and create a substantial economic burden on the health care system. Furthermore, they can have devastating impacts on the athletic careers and long-term health of athletes. However, concussion evaluation remains a controversy with respect to diagnosis, management, and return-to-play guidelines for sports-related concussions. This is especially true of the immediate evaluation of sports-related concussion on the sidelines, where decisions must be made quickly and effectively with limited diagnostic resources. Considerable effort has been directed toward developing reliable and valid sidelines assessment modalities for concussion evaluation with a goal of accurately determining whether an athlete requires rapid removal from or is able to return to competition. This paper discusses the role of the concussion specialist on the sidelines during athletic competition and examines the current tools and resources available for the sidelines assessment of concussion. Additionally, new technologies, including electronic applications for Smartphones and tablets, as well as future directions in sidelines assessment of concussion are examined.

A Review of Minimally Invasive Procedures for the Treatment of Adult Spinal Deformity.

Study Design. Literature review. Objective. To review the literature evaluating the role of minimally invasive (MIS) techniques in the operative treatment of adult spinal deformity (ASD). Summary of Background Data. MIS techniques have become important tools in the armamentarium of spinal deformity surgeons as a means of achieving coronal and sagittal plane correction, while minimizing the complications of open deformity surgery. The literature suggests that MIS techniques are associated with certain limitations, and to date, determining which patients are candidates for MIS deformity correction is largely based on surgeon experience. Methods. A systematic literature review was performed using the PubMed-National Library of Medicine/National Institute of Health databases. All studies describing the use of MIS techniques in ASD surgery were included for review. Results. A total of 39 articles were included in the review. All studies were specifically designed to demonstrate radiographic and clinical outcomes of MIS techniques. Thirty articles were specific to MIS techniques as they relate to ASD surgery, whereas six articles were designed to describe details of various MIS techniques, and three articles were related to general principles of corrective surgery for ASD. Conclusion. The literature has demonstrated that MIS techniques are effective in achieving radiographic correction after surgery for ASD, while reducing complications compared with traditional open surgery. However, MIS techniques have limitations and may not be as effective as open surgery for severe and/or fixed sagittal and coronal plane deformity. Therefore, selecting patients for stand-alone MIS versus circumferential (cMIS) versus hybrid MIS (hybMIS) is critically important. The MIS spinal deformity surgery algorithm was designed to address this topic. Further studies are required to better elucidate the role and limitations of MIS techniques in patient undergoing corrective surgery for ASD. Level of Evidence: N/A

Spinal and Nucleus Caudalis Dorsal Root Entry Zone Lesioning for Chronic Pain: Efficacy and Outcomes

BACKGROUND The role for nucleus caudalis (NC) and spinal dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) lesioning in the management of chronic pain emanating from increased electrical activity in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and brainstem remains largely uncharted. METHODS All patients who underwent NC and spinal DREZ lesioning by a single surgeon were identified and follow-up was obtained by telephone questionnaires. Patient demographics, surgical details, outcomes, and complications were critically reviewed for all patients identified. RESULTS Of 83 patients identified, 53 (63.9%) were male. Indications for NC DREZ lesioning included trigeminal neuropathic pain (6), trigeminal deafferentation pain (3), glossopharyngeal or occipital neuralgia (3), post-herpetic neuralgia (3), and trauma (1); for spinal DREZ lesioning, indications included brachial plexus avulsion (20), post-herpetic neuralgia (19), spinal cord injury (11), phantom limb pain (8), pelvic pain (5), and complex regional pain syndrome (4). Pain relief was most significant among patients with trigeminal pain, traumatic brachial plexus avulsion injuries, spinal cord injury, and traumatic phantom limb pain. Mean pain reduction averaged 58.3% at a mean follow-up of 8.3 years. Complications included 3 cases of paresis, 3 cases of neuropathy/radiculopathy, 2 cases of ataxia, 3 general medical conditions (colitis, 2; atelectasis, 1), and 2 cases of persistent incisional site pain. Pain relief lasted an average of 4.3 years. CONCLUSIONS Spinal and NC DREZ lesioning can provide effective relief in well-selected patients with intractable chronic pain conditions arising from trigeminal pain, spinal cord injury, brachial plexus avulsions, post-herpetic neuralgia, and phantom limb pain.

Significance of T2 Hyperintensity on Magnetic Resonance Imaging After Cervical Cord Injury and Return to Play in Professional Athletes.

BACKGROUND Cervical cord magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) T2 hyperintensity is used as evidence of cord trauma in the evaluation and management of athletes in contact sports. The long-term pathophysiologic and prognostic value of this finding is poorly understood, especially in return to play (RTP). OBJECTIVE To examine the significance of T2 hyperintensity in the cervical spinal cord of professional athletes. METHODS Retrospective review of MRI T2 hyperintensity findings between 2007 and 2014 in 5 professional athletes. Pertinent examination and demographics, including mechanism of injury, surgical intervention, radiographs, MRI studies, long-term outcomes, and RTP recommendations were collected. RESULTS Four National Football League players and 1 professional wrestler had prior traumatic neurapraxia that at the time of initial consultation had resolved. MRIs showed congenitally small cervical canal (1) and multilevel spondylosis/stenosis/disc herniation (4) along with focal cord T2 hyperintensity (5). The signal abnormalities were at C3/C4 (3), C4 mid-vertebral body (1), and C5/C6 (1). Four athletes had single-level anterior cervical discectomy and fusion, and 1 was nonoperative. Serial MRI imaging at 3 months after surgery showed hyperintensity partially resolved (4) and unchanged (1), and at 9-months 3 of the 5 completely resolved. Based on the authors RTP criteria, 4 of 5 were released to return to their sport. Clearance for RTP preceded complete resolution of MRI T2 hyperintensity in 3 of 4 athletes. The 2 athletes that have returned to profession sport have not had any additional episodes of neurapraxia or any cervical spine-related complications. CONCLUSION MRI T2 hyperintensity in contact sport athletes who are symptom-free with normal examination and no evidence of spinal instability may not be a contraindication to RTP. Additional observations are needed to confirm this observation.

The results of a third Gamma Knife procedure for recurrent trigeminal neuralgia

OBJECT Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) is the least invasive treatment option for medically refractory, intractable trigeminal neuralgia (TN) and is especially valuable for treating elderly, infirm patients or those on anticoagulation therapy. The authors reviewed pain outcomes and complications in TN patients who required 3 radiosurgical procedures for recurrent or persistent pain. METHODS A retrospective review of all patients who underwent 3 GKRS procedures for TN at 4 participating centers of the North American Gamma Knife Consortium from 1995 to 2012 was performed. The Barrow Neurological Institute (BNI) pain score was used to evaluate pain outcomes. RESULTS Seventeen patients were identified; 7 were male and 10 were female. The mean age at the time of last GKRS was 79.6 years (range 51.2-95.6 years). The TN was Type I in 16 patients and Type II in 1 patient. No patient suffered from multiple sclerosis. Eight patients (47.1%) reported initial complete pain relief (BNI Score I) following their third GKRS and 8 others (47.1%) experienced at least partial relief (BNI Scores II-IIIb). The average time to initial response was 2.9 months following the third GKRS. Although 3 patients (17.6%) developed new facial sensory dysfunction following primary GKRS and 2 patients (11.8%) experienced new or worsening sensory disturbance following the second GKRS, no patient sustained additional sensory disturbances after the third procedure. At a mean follow-up of 22.9 months following the third GKRS, 6 patients (35.3%) reported continued Score I complete pain relief, while 7 others (41.2%) reported pain improvement (BNI Scores II-IIIb). Four patients (23.5%) suffered recurrent TN following the third procedure at a mean interval of 19.1 months. CONCLUSIONS A third GKRS resulted in pain reduction with a low risk of additional complications in most patients with medically refractory and recurrent, intractable TN. In patients unsuitable for other microsurgical or percutaneous strategies, especially those receiving long-term oral anticoagulation or antiplatelet agents, GKRS repeated for a third time was a satisfactory, low risk option.

A Cost-Effectiveness Comparison Between Open Transforaminal and Minimally Invasive Lateral Lumbar Interbody Fusions Using the Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio at 2-Year Follow-up.

BACKGROUND Direct cost comparisons between minimally invasive spine surgeries and the open options are rare. OBJECTIVE To compare healthcare costs associated with open transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) and minimally invasive lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF) by calculating the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) and to calculate the thresholds for minimum clinically important difference and minimum cost-effective difference for patient-reported outcome measures at the 2-year follow-up. METHODS Forty-five patients who underwent single-level TLIF and 29 patients who underwent single-level stand-alone LLIF were included in the comparison. All costs from diagnosis through the 2-year follow-up were available from a comprehensive single-center data bank within a unified hospital system. Payment provided for all spine-related medical resource use from the time of diagnosis through 2 years was recorded. A 0% discount rate was applied. Quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) were calculated from the EuroQol-5D collected in an unbiased manner. Difference in total cost per QALY gained for LLIF minus that for TLIF was assessed as the estimate of the ICER from a US perspective. RESULTS Significant improvements were observed at the 2-year follow-up for both TLIF and LLIF with the Short Form-36 physical component summary, Oswestry Disability Index, visual analog scale back pain and leg pain scores, and EuroQol-5D. ICER calculations revealed similar mean cumulative QALYs gained at the 2-year interval (0.67 for TLIF and 0.60 for LLIF; P = .33). Median total costs of care after TLIF and LLIF were