Zhuoran Ma

Traumatic Brain Injury Imaging in the Second Near-Infrared Window with a Molecular Fluorophore.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. A bright, renal-excreted, and biocompatible near-infrared II fluorophore for in vivo imaging of TBI is designed. A transient hypoperfusion in the injured cerebral region, followed by fluorophore leakage, is observed. NIR-II fluorophores can provide noninvasive assessment of TBI.

Rational Design of Molecular Fluorophores for Biological Imaging in the NIR‐II Window

A new design for second near-infrared window (NIR-II) molecular fluorophores based on a shielding unit-donor-acceptor-donor-shielding unit (S-D-A-D-S) structure is reported. With 3,4-ethylenedioxy thiophene as the donor and fluorene as the shielding unit, the best performance fluorophores IR-FE and IR-FEP exhibit an emission quantum yield of 31% in toluene and 2.0% in water, respectively, representing the brightest organic dyes in NIR-II region reported so far.

Molecular imaging of biological systems with a clickable dye in the broad 800- to 1,700-nm near-infrared window

Significance Fluorescence-based optical imaging is an important tool allowing researchers and clinicians to molecularly probe wide-ranging biological structures and processes. To break through the traditional molecular imaging window spanning from the visible to the near-infrared (NIR)-I (400–900 nm) region for imaging multiplicity, newly designed and ultrapurified fluorescent probe-antibody conjugates with fluorescence emissions in the NIR-II region (1,000–1,700 nm) have been developed. These NIR-II probes can reduce background autofluorescence for deep-tissue molecular imaging in a 3D imaging mode. These probes open up more and deeper nonoverlapping molecular imaging channels for complex biological systems. Fluorescence imaging multiplicity of biological systems is an area of intense focus, currently limited to fluorescence channels in the visible and first near-infrared (NIR-I; ∼700–900 nm) spectral regions. The development of conjugatable fluorophores with longer wavelength emission is highly desired to afford more targeting channels, reduce background autofluorescence, and achieve deeper tissue imaging depths. We have developed NIR-II (1,000–1,700 nm) molecular imaging agents with a bright NIR-II fluorophore through high-efficiency click chemistry to specific molecular antibodies. Relying on buoyant density differences during density gradient ultracentrifugation separations, highly pure NIR-II fluorophore-antibody conjugates emitting ∼1,100 nm were obtained for use as molecular-specific NIR-II probes. This facilitated 3D staining of ∼170-μm histological brain tissues sections on a home-built confocal microscope, demonstrating multicolor molecular imaging across both the NIR-I and NIR-II windows (800–1,700 nm).

A high quantum yield molecule-protein complex fluorophore for near-infrared II imaging

Fluorescence imaging in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II) allows visualization of deep anatomical features with an unprecedented degree of clarity. NIR-II fluorophores draw from a broad spectrum of materials spanning semiconducting nanomaterials to organic molecular dyes, yet unfortunately all water-soluble organic molecules with >1,000 nm emission suffer from low quantum yields that have limited temporal resolution and penetration depth. Here, we report tailoring the supramolecular assemblies of protein complexes with a sulfonated NIR-II organic dye (CH-4T) to produce a brilliant 110-fold increase in fluorescence, resulting in the highest quantum yield molecular fluorophore thus far. The bright molecular complex allowed for the fastest video-rate imaging in the second NIR window with ∼50-fold reduced exposure times at a fast 50 frames-per-second (FPS) capable of resolving mouse cardiac cycles. In addition, we demonstrate that the NIR-II molecular complexes are superior to clinically approved ICG for lymph node imaging deep within the mouse body.

Boosting the down-shifting luminescence of rare-earth nanocrystals for biological imaging beyond 1500 nm

In vivo fluorescence imaging in the near-infrared region between 1500–1700 nm (NIR-IIb window) affords high spatial resolution, deep-tissue penetration, and diminished auto-fluorescence due to the suppressed scattering of long-wavelength photons and large fluorophore Stokes shifts. However, very few NIR-IIb fluorescent probes exist currently. Here, we report the synthesis of a down-conversion luminescent rare-earth nanocrystal with cerium doping (Er/Ce co-doped NaYbF4 nanocrystal core with an inert NaYF4 shell). Ce doping is found to suppress the up-conversion pathway while boosting down-conversion by ~9-fold to produce bright 1550 nm luminescence under 980 nm excitation. Optimization of the inert shell coating surrounding the core and hydrophilic surface functionalization minimize the luminescence quenching effect by water. The resulting biocompatible, bright 1550 nm emitting nanoparticles enable fast in vivo imaging of blood vasculature in the mouse brain and hindlimb in the NIR-IIb window with short exposure time of 20 ms for rare-earth based probes.Fluorescence imaging in the near-infrared window between 1500–1700 nm (NIR-IIb window) offers superior spatial resolution and tissue penetration depth, but few NIR-IIb probes exist. Here, the authors synthesize rare earth down-converting nanocrystals as promising fluorescent probes for in vivo imaging in this spectral region.

Donor Engineering for NIR-II Molecular Fluorophores with Enhanced Fluorescent Performance

Organic fluorophores have been widely used for biological imaging in the visible and the first near-infrared windows. However, their application in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II, 1000-1700 nm) is still limited mainly due to low fluorescence quantum yields (QYs). Here, we explore molecular engineering on the donor unit to develop high performance NIR-II fluorophores. The fluorophores are constructed by a shielding unit-donor(s)-acceptor-donor(s)-shielding unit structure. Thiophene is introduced as the second donor connected to the shielding unit, which can increase the conjugation length and red-shift the fluorescence emission. Alkyl thiophene is employed as the first donor connected to the acceptor unit. The bulky and hydrophobic alkyl thiophene donor affords larger distortion of the conjugated backbone and fewer interactions with water molecules compared to other donor units studied before. The molecular fluorophore IR-FTAP with octyl thiophene as the first donor and thiophene as the second donor exhibits fluorescence emission peaked at 1048 nm with a QY of 5.3% in aqueous solutions, one of the highest for molecular NIR-II fluorophore reported so far. Superior temporal and spatial resolutions have been demonstrated with IR-FTAP fluorophore for NIR-II imaging of the blood vessels of a mouse hindlimb.

A bright organic NIR-II nanofluorophore for three-dimensional imaging into biological tissues

Fluorescence imaging of biological systems in the second near-infrared (NIR-II, 1000–1700 nm) window has shown promise of high spatial resolution, low background, and deep tissue penetration owing to low autofluorescence and suppressed scattering of long wavelength photons. Here we develop a bright organic nanofluorophore (named p-FE) for high-performance biological imaging in the NIR-II window. The bright NIR-II >1100 nm fluorescence emission from p-FE affords non-invasive in vivo tracking of blood flow in mouse brain vessels. Excitingly, p-FE enables one-photon based, three-dimensional (3D) confocal imaging of vasculatures in fixed mouse brain tissue with a layer-by-layer imaging depth up to ~1.3 mm and sub-10 µm high spatial resolution. We also perform in vivo two-color fluorescence imaging in the NIR-II window by utilizing p-FE as a vasculature imaging agent emitting between 1100 and 1300 nm and single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) emitting above 1500 nm to highlight tumors in mice.Imaging in the second near-infrared window has attracted attention due to superior penetration depth and low signal interference. Here, the authors describe a new organic nano fluorophore with high quantum yield and demonstrate its use for in vivo imaging.

3D NIR‐II Molecular Imaging Distinguishes Targeted Organs with High‐Performance NIR‐II Bioconjugates

Greatly reduced scattering in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) region (1000-1700 nm) opens up many new exciting avenues of bioimaging research, yet NIR-II fluorescence imaging is mostly implemented by using nontargeted fluorophores or wide-field imaging setups, limiting the signal-to-background ratio and imaging penetration depth due to poor specific binding and out-of-focus signals. A newly developed high-performance NIR-II bioconjugate enables targeted imaging of a specific organ in the living body with high quality. Combined with a home-built NIR-II confocal set-up, the enhanced imaging technique allows 900 µm-deep 3D organ imaging without tissue clearing techniques. Bioconjugation of two hormones to nonoverlapping NIR-II fluorophores facilitates two-color imaging of different receptors, demonstrating unprecedented multicolor live molecular imaging across the NIR-II window. This deep tissue imaging of specific receptors in live animals allows development of noninvasive molecular imaging of multifarious models of normal and neoplastic organs in vivo, beyond the traditional visible to NIR-I range. The developed NIR-II fluorescence microscopy will become a powerful imaging technique for deep tissue imaging without any physical sectioning or clearing treatment of the tissue.

Bright quantum dots emitting at ∼1,600 nm in the NIR-IIb window for deep tissue fluorescence imaging

Significance In vivo fluorescence imaging in near IR-IIb window (1,500–1,700 nm) can provide high spatial and temporal resolution and deep tissue penetration for fundamental research and potential translations. Herein, a bright fluorescent probe emitting at ∼1,600 nm based on lead sulfide (PbS)/CdS quantum dots was developed. The CdS shell helped to chemically passivate and retain the high fluorescence of the PbS core after phase transfer to aqueous solutions for biocompatibility. The 1,600-nm emitting probe allowed noninvasive, millimeter-deep fluorescence imaging at high speeds up to 60 frames per second with micrometer-scale spatial resolution in 2D wide-field and 3D confocal modes. The probes were nontoxic and largely excreted over 1 month, providing a tool for in vivo research of preclinical animal models. With suppressed photon scattering and diminished autofluorescence, in vivo fluorescence imaging in the 1,500- to 1,700-nm range of the near-IR (NIR) spectrum (NIR-IIb window) can afford high clarity and deep tissue penetration. However, there has been a lack of NIR-IIb fluorescent probes with sufficient brightness and aqueous stability. Here, we present a bright fluorescent probe emitting at ∼1,600 nm based on core/shell lead sulfide/cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dots (CSQDs) synthesized in organic phase. The CdS shell plays a critical role of protecting the lead sulfide (PbS) core from oxidation and retaining its bright fluorescence through the process of amphiphilic polymer coating and transferring to water needed for imparting aqueous stability and compatibility. The resulting CSQDs with a branched PEG outer layer exhibited a long blood circulation half-life of 7 hours and enabled through-skin, real-time imaging of blood flows in mouse vasculatures at an unprecedented 60 frames per second (fps) speed by detecting ∼1,600-nm fluorescence under 808-nm excitation. It also allowed through-skin in vivo confocal 3D imaging of tumor vasculatures in mice with an imaging depth of ∼1.2 mm. The PEG-CSQDs accumulated in tumor effectively through the enhanced permeation and retention effect, affording a high tumor-to-normal tissue ratio up to ∼32 owing to the bright ∼1,600-nm emission and nearly zero autofluorescence background resulting from a large ∼800-nm Stoke’s shift. The aqueous-compatible CSQDs are excreted through the biliary pathway without causing obvious toxicity effects, suggesting a useful class of ∼1,600-nm emitting probes for biomedical research.

Molecular Cancer Imaging in the Second Near‐Infrared Window Using a Renal‐Excreted NIR‐II Fluorophore‐Peptide Probe

In vivo molecular imaging of tumors targeting a specific cancer cell marker is a promising strategy for cancer diagnosis and imaging guided surgery and therapy. While targeted imaging often relies on antibody-modified probes, peptides can afford targeting probes with small sizes, high penetrating ability, and rapid excretion. Recently, in vivo fluorescence imaging in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II, 1000-1700 nm) shows promise in reaching sub-centimeter depth with microscale resolution. Here, a novel peptide (named CP) conjugated NIR-II fluorescent probe is reported for molecular tumor imaging targeting a tumor stem cell biomarker CD133. The click chemistry derived peptide-dye (CP-IRT dye) probe afforded efficient in vivo tumor targeting in mice with a high tumor-to-normal tissue signal ratio (T/NT > 8). Importantly, the CP-IRT probes are rapidly renal excreted (≈87% excretion within 6 h), in stark contrast to accumulation in the liver for typical antibody-dye probes. Further, with NIR-II emitting CP-IRT probes, urethra of mice can be imaged fluorescently for the first time noninvasively through intact tissue. The NIR-II fluorescent, CD133 targeting imaging probes are potentially useful for human use in the clinic for cancer diagnosis and therapy.