A. F. Thernisien

RECONSTRUCTING CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS WITH COORDINATED IMAGING AND IN SITU OBSERVATIONS: GLOBAL STRUCTURE, KINEMATICS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SPACE WEATHER FORECASTING

We reconstruct the global structure and kinematics of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) using coordinated imaging and in situ observations from multiple vantage points. A forward modeling technique, which assumes a rope-like morphology for CMEs, is used to determine the global structure (including orientation and propagation direction) from coronagraph observations. We reconstruct the corresponding structure from in situ measurements at 1 AU with the Grad-Shafranov method, which gives the flux-rope orientation, cross section, and a rough knowledge of the propagation direction. CME kinematics (propagation direction and radial distance) during the transit from the Sun to 1 AU are studied with a geometric triangulation technique, which provides an unambiguous association between solar observations and in situ signatures; a track fitting approach is invoked when data are available from only one spacecraft. We show how the results obtained from imaging and in situ data can be compared by applying these methods to the 2007 November 14-16 and 2008 December 12 CMEs. This merged imaging and in situ study shows important consequences and implications for CME research as well as space weather forecasting: (1) CME propagation directions can be determined to a relatively good precision as shown by the consistency between different methods; (2) the geometric triangulation technique shows a promising capability to link solar observations with corresponding in situ signatures at 1 AU and to predict CME arrival at the Earth; (3) the flux rope within CMEs, which has the most hazardous southward magnetic field, cannot be imaged at large distances due to expansion; (4) the flux-rope orientation derived from in situ measurements at 1 AU may have a large deviation from that determined by coronagraph image modeling; and (5) we find, for the first time, that CMEs undergo a westward migration with respect to the Sun-Earth line at their acceleration phase, which we suggest is a universal feature produced by the magnetic field connecting the Sun and ejecta. The importance of having dedicated spacecraft at L4 and L5, which are well situated for the triangulation concept, is also discussed based on the results.

THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL MORPHOLOGY OF A COROTATING INTERACTION REGION IN THE INNER HELIOSPHERE

In its three years of operation, the HI2 imagers on the two Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory (STEREO) spacecraft have imaged many corotating interaction regions (CIRs) in the interplanetary medium, allowing the study of their three-dimensional (3D) morphology. Using an entirely empirical analysis technique, we construct a 3D model of one CIR, which is able to reproduce the general appearance and evolution of the CIR in HI2 images. The model CIR is also consistent with in situ data. Its curvature is compatible with the observed speed of the slow wind that is acting as the barrier for the fast wind piling up against it, and the width of the model CIR is consistent with the duration of the observed density pulse. Perpendicular to the equatorial plane, the model CIR has a parabolic shape that maps beautifully back to a bifurcated streamer observed at the Sun, which surrounds a coronal hole. This implies that this particular CIR is due to fast wind emanating from low latitudes that is impinging against slow wind in overlying streamers.

Hybrid Reconstruction to Derive 3D Height - Time Evolution for Coronal Mass Ejections

We present a hybrid combination of forward and inverse reconstruction methods using multiple observations of a coronal mass ejection (CME) to derive the three-dimensional (3D) “true” height – time plots for individual CME components. We apply this hybrid method to the components of the 31 December 2007 CME. This CME, observed clearly in both the STEREO A and STEREO B COR2 white-light coronagraphs, evolves asymmetrically across the 15-solar-radius field of view within a span of three hours. The method has two reconstruction steps. We fit a boundary envelope for the potential 3D CME shape using a flux-rope-type model oriented to best match the observations. Using this forward model as a constraining envelope, we then run an inverse reconstruction, solving for the simplest underlying 3D electron density distribution that can, when rendered, reproduce the observed coronagraph data frames. We produce plots for each segment to establish the 3D or “true” height – time plots for each center of mass as well as for the bulk CME motion, and we use these plots along with our derived density profiles to estimate the CME’s asymmetric expansion rate.

The solar orbiter imager (SoloHI) instrument for the Solar Orbiter mission

The SoloHI instrument for the ESA/NASA Solar Orbiter mission will track density fluctuations in the inner heliosphere, by observing visible sunlight scattered by electrons in the solar wind. Fluctuations are associated with dynamic events such as coronal mass ejections, but also with the “quiescent” solar wind. SoloHI will provide the crucial link between the low corona observations from the Solar Orbiter instruments and the in-situ measurements on Solar Orbiter and the Solar Probe Plus missions. The instrument is a visible-light telescope, based on the SECCHI/Heliospheric Imager (HI) currently flying on the STEREO mission. In this concept, a series of baffles reduce the scattered light from the solar disk and reflections from the spacecraft to levels below the scene brightness, typically by a factor of 1012. The fluctuations are imposed against a much brighter signal produced by light scattered by dust particles (the zodiacal light/F-corona). Multiple images are obtained over a period of several minutes and are summed on-board to increase the signal-to-noise ratio and to reduce the telemetry load. SoloHI is a single telescope with a 40⁰ field of view beginning at 5° from the Sun center. Through a series of Venus gravity assists, the minimum perihelia for Solar Orbiter will be reduced to about 60 Rsun (0.28 AU), and the inclination of the orbital plane will be increased to a maximum of 35° after the 7 year mission. The CMOS/APS detector is a mosaic of four 2048 x 1930 pixel arrays, each 2-side buttable with 11 μm pixels.

Seeing the corona with the solar probe plus mission: the wide-field imager for solar probe+ (WISPR)

The Solar Probe Plus (SPP) mission scheduled for launch in 2018, will orbit between the Sun and Venus with diminishing perihelia reaching as close as 7 million km (9.86 solar radii) from Sun center. In addition to a suite of in-situ probes for the magnetic field, plasma, and energetic particles, SPP will be equipped with an imager. The Wide-field Imager for the Solar PRobe+ (WISPR), with a 95° radial by 58° transverse field of view, will image the fine-scale coronal structure of the corona, derive the 3D structure of the large-scale corona, and determine whether a dust-free zone exists near the Sun. Given the tight mass constrains of the mission, WISPR incorporates an efficient design of two widefield telescopes and their associated focal plane arrays based on novel large-format (2kx2k) APS CMOS detectors into the smallest heliospheric imaging package to date. The flexible control electronics allow WISPR to collect individual images at cadences up to 1 second at perihelion or sum several of them to increase the signal-to-noise during the outbound part of the orbit. The use of two telescopes minimizes the risk of dust damage which may be considerable close to the Sun. The dependency of the Thomson scattering emission of the corona on the imaging geometry dictates that WISPR will be very sensitive to the emission from plasma close to the spacecraft in contrast to the situation for imaging from Earth orbit. WISPR will be the first ‘local’ imager providing a crucial link between the large scale corona and the in-situ measurements.

Comparison of different algorithms and programming languages in the diffraction calculation for a coronagraph stray light analysis

In order to obtain an image of the solar corona, coronagraph optical design needs to be optimized with respect to stray light reduction. Despite the accurate optical design, some stray light is present on the focal plane in addition to the coronal signal. The stray light level has to be estimated in order to test the quality of the optical design. The stray light is given by scattering off the surfaces of the optical elements and by diffraction from the instrument apertures. In order to estimate the stray light level on the focal plane, a diffraction calculation is necessary. In this paper we describe the diffraction calculation for a coronagraph with an innovative stray light reduction design. For the same optical configuration we used two different algorithms, based on different approaches to Fresnel diffraction computation. By using the Fresnel-Kirchhoff scalar theory we developed an algorithm, and we used it to write codes in IDL (Interactive Data Language, by Research System Inc.), and C programming languages. By using the GLAD (General Laser Analysis and Design, by AOR) software, which diffraction algorithm is based on the principles of Fourier optics, we wrote a further code. In this paper we compare the results of the different codes and we discuss their efficiencies.

Experimental and numerical optimization of a coronagraph external occulter: application to SECCHI-COR2 and GOES-R SCOR

The space-born coronagraph is an instrument used to observe the solar corona, the outer atmosphere of the Sun, typically over a range of altitudes from close to the limb of the solar disk to tens of solar radii. The brightness of the solar disk is many orders of magnitude greater than that of the corona. A coronagraph is designed to reject the light from the solar disk such that the corona is observable. An externally-occulted coronagraph is basically a telescope that forms an image of the corona, with the addition of an external occulter before and an internal occulter after the objective elements and stops, positioned and sized to reject light from the solar disk. The main source of stray light is diffraction of solar light around the edge of the external occulter, which is then scattered into the image plane by the optical elements. The occulters and stops are designed to reduce the intensity of diffracted and scattered light in the coronagraph as much as possible. We have developed a numerical model of the diffraction by an external occulter system and validated the model experimentally. We used the model to optimize the external occulter design for the SECCHI COR2 instrument, which is part of the NASA STEREO mission. We also used the model for the GOES-R SCOR concept design to predict the sensitivity of the instrument to misalignment and off-pointing from the Sun. In this paper, we will present the results of this experimental and numerical study of the performance of the external occulters on these instruments.

Stray light analysis and testing of the SoloHI (solar orbiter heliospheric imager) and WISPR (wide field imager for solar probe) heliospheric imagers

The techniques for stray light analysis, optimization and testing are described for two space telescopes that observe the solar corona: the Solar Orbiter Heliospheric Imager (SoloHI) that will fly on the ESA Solar Orbiter (SolO), and the Wide Field Imager for Solar Probe (WISPR) that will fly on the NASA Parker Solar Probe (PSP) mission. Imaging the solar corona is challenging, because the corona is six orders of magnitude dimmer than the Sun surface at the limb, and the coronal brightness continues to decrease to ten orders of magnitude below the Sun limb above 5° elongation from Sun center. The SoloHI and WISPR instruments are located behind their respective spacecraft heat shield. Each spacecraft heat shield does not block the instrument field of view above the solar limb, but will prevent direct sunlight entering the instrument aperture. To satisfy the instrument stray light attenuation required to observe the solar corona, an additional set of instrument baffles were designed and tested for successive diffraction of the heat shield diffracted light before entering the telescope entrance pupil. A semi empirical model of diffraction was used to design the baffles, and tests of the flight models were performed in flight like conditions with the aim of verifying the rejection of the design. Test data showed that the baffle systems behaved as expected. A second source of stray light is due to reflections of the sunlight off of the spacecraft structures and towards the instruments. This is especially the case for SoloHI where one of the spacecraft 8m tall solar arrays is located behind the telescope and reflects sunlight back onto the instrument baffles. The SoloHI baffle design had to be adjusted to mitigate that component, which was achieved by modifying their geometry and their optical coating. Laboratory tests of the flight model were performed. The test data were correlated with the predictions of a ray tracing model, which enabled the fine tuning of the model. Finally, end-to-end ray tracing was used to predict the stray light for the flight conditions.