Amanda M. Rymal

Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an applied model for the use of observation

Using the 5 Ws and 1 H journalistic approach of Beveridge Mackie (2011), we reviewed the observation intervention research that targeted sport skills or daily movement tasks. Through this review, it became apparent that while there is much research that examines observation of a live or video (what), skilled model (who) for enhanced skill learning (why) in laboratory settings (where), there is a need for not only a wider scope of research, but also a deeper one. Following the review of literature, an applied model for the use of observation is advanced. Through this applied model, we propose that practitioners should first assess the observers characteristics and the task characteristics for which any observation intervention is being created. The practitioner should then gain an understanding of the context and the desired outcomes of the learner and use this advance information to vary the characteristics of: (1) who is observed; (2) what is observed and what instructional features will accompany the intervention; (3) when it is observed; and (4) how the observed information should be delivered. Future research directions are also forwarded with regard to identified gaps in the literature.

Feedforward Self-Modeling Enhances Skill Acquisition in Children Learning Trampoline Skills

The purpose of this research was to examine whether children would benefit from a feedforward self-modeling (FSM) video and to explore possible explanatory mechanisms for the potential benefits, using a self-regulation framework. To this end, children were involved in learning two five-skill trampoline routines. For one of the routines, a FSM video was provided during acquisition, whereas only verbal instructions were provided for the alternate routine. The FSM involved editing video footage such that it showed the learner performing the trampoline routine at a higher skill level than their current capability. Analyses of the data showed that while physical performance benefits were observed for the routine that was learned with the FSM video, no differences were obtained in relation to the self-regulatory measures. Thus, the FSM video enhanced motor skill acquisition, but this could not be explained by changes to the varied self-regulatory processes examined.

Learner-Controlled Self-Observation is Advantageous for Motor Skill Acquisition

There were two main objectives of this research. First, we wanted to examine whether video feedback of the self (self-observation) was more effective for motor skill learning when the choice to view the video was provided to the learner (learner-controlled, LC) as opposed to an experimenter-controlled (EC) delivery. Secondly, we explored whether there were differences in the self-regulatory processes of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, as well as perceived choice between the LC and EC conditions. Two groups (LC and EC) of children (M age of 11.2 years; SD = 1.89) attempted to learn a progression of trampoline skills during a 2-day acquisition phase in which video self-observation was available. The second acquisition day was followed by a no self-observation retention test 1 day later. It was hypothesized that, during retention, the LC group would be more self-efficacious about their ability to progress through the trampoline skills, show greater intrinsic motivation and perceived choice, and go further in skill progression than the EC group. Analysis of the acquisition data showed the LC group had greater increases in self-efficacy as compared to the EC group. Results of the retention test showed that the participants in the LC group obtained higher scores on the intrinsic motivation and perceived choice measures and had higher skill progression scores as compared to the EC group. Regression analysis showed that group assignment and self-efficacy were significant predictors of the physical performance benefits noted in retention. These findings are discussed within Zimmerman’s (2004) self-regulation of learning model.

Self-modeling and competitive beam performance enhancement examined within a self-regulation perspective.

The observation of oneself on video that has been edited to show a performance level higher than one can actually perform is a feedforward form of modeling, termed self-modeling (SM; Dowrick, 1999). In this research, gymnasts alternated between viewing and not viewing a SM video during their competitive season. Results showed that gymnasts attained significantly higher beam scores when they viewed the video versus when they did not. No differences in self-efficacy were observed using a quantitative measure; however, a qualitative analysis of interviews based on Zimmermans (2000) model, indicated that a number of self-regulatory processes, including self-efficacy, were employed.