Diane M. Ste-Marie

Differential modulation of corticospinal excitability during observation, mental imagery and imitation of hand actions.

In this study, we attempted to better delineate the changes in corticospinal excitability that accompany perceptual to motor transformations when people are asked to observe, image or imitate actions. Motor evoked potentials (MEP) from transcranial magnetic stimulation were recorded in the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle of the dominant hand (15 right, 4 left) in five different conditions: (1) passive observation; (2) observation to imitate; (3) imagery; (4) imitation; and (5) counting backwards mentally. MEPs were also recorded at rest at the beginning and at the end of the session to establish baseline (BL) values. For the observation conditions, participants (n=19, 18-38 years) watched video sequences (5s) of hand actions performed by a model with the right arm (passive observation: scissors; observation to imitate: OK sign). Active imitation produced the greatest MEP facilitation compared to baseline, followed by the two observation conditions and the imagery conditions, which all produced similar levels of facilitation (post hoc comparisons). Mental counting produced some facilitation, but this effect was inconsistent. Baseline MEPs remained stable at the end of the session. A further comparison between right-handers (n=15) and left-handers (n=4) revealed no difference in the pattern of modulation across conditions. The similarity found between observation and imagery of hand actions in terms of corticospinal facilitation is interpreted in the light of the motor-simulation theory of Jeannerod [Neuroimage 14 (2001)], which proposes that perceiving actions involves neural simulation of the same action by the observer, thereby explaining the parallel between actions observed and actions imaged at the representational level.

The impact of self-as-a-model interventions on children's self-regulation of learning and swimming performance

Abstract We compared two self-as-a-model interventions: self-modelling (viewing oneself perform an adaptive behaviour) and self-observation (viewing oneself perform at current skill level). Operating within Zimmermans (1989, 2000) theory of self-regulated learning, we examined the effect of the modelling interventions on three self-regulatory processes (self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and self-satisfaction), as well as physical performance. Thirty-three children were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups. The two self-as-a model groups received the modelling intervention just before physical practice, whereas the control group received physical practice only. Analyses of the retention scores revealed significant differences for all dependent measures. Post hoc testing showed consistently that the self-modelling group performed better than the self-observation and control groups, and that the two latter groups performing similarly. These results provide support for the implementation of self-modelling interventions with children when teaching motor skills.

High Levels of Contextual Interference Enhance Handwriting Skill Acquisition

The authors conducted 3 experiments to examine whether introducing high levels of contextual interference is useful in handwriting skill acquisition. For all experiments, elementary school students (Ns = 44, 50, and 78, respectively) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 practice schedules—blocked or random practice—in the acquisition phase. In the blocked condition, each of 3 letters (h, a, and y) or (in Experiment 1) symbols was handwritten 24 times consecutively. In the random condition, each letter (or symbol) was practiced 24 times, but in an intermixed, unsystematic sequence. Overall, the results showed that the random practice schedule leads to enhanced retention and transfer performance of handwriting skill acquisition.

Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an applied model for the use of observation

Using the 5 Ws and 1 H journalistic approach of Beveridge Mackie (2011), we reviewed the observation intervention research that targeted sport skills or daily movement tasks. Through this review, it became apparent that while there is much research that examines observation of a live or video (what), skilled model (who) for enhanced skill learning (why) in laboratory settings (where), there is a need for not only a wider scope of research, but also a deeper one. Following the review of literature, an applied model for the use of observation is advanced. Through this applied model, we propose that practitioners should first assess the observers characteristics and the task characteristics for which any observation intervention is being created. The practitioner should then gain an understanding of the context and the desired outcomes of the learner and use this advance information to vary the characteristics of: (1) who is observed; (2) what is observed and what instructional features will accompany the intervention; (3) when it is observed; and (4) how the observed information should be delivered. Future research directions are also forwarded with regard to identified gaps in the literature.

Expert-novice differences in gymnastic judging : An information-processing perspective

The expertise paradigm has been used within the sport domain at the level of the athlete (e.g. Abernethy et al., 1994; Starkes et al., 1994) and the coach (e.g. Cote et al., 1995a). Research into the qualities of expertise and its development in judges of sport performance, however, has been very limited. The present research examined various sport-specific cognitive attributes that were predicted to lead to an expert advantage in gymnastic judging. Twelve novice and expert gymnastic judges were compared on a number of domain-specific tasks. Expert judges were significantly better at perceptually anticipating upcoming gymnastic elements from advance information. Also, gymnastic elements that were correctly anticipated were judged more accurately than those that had been anticipated incorrectly. Experts also exhibited significantly greater depth and breadth in their declarative knowledge base. These findings are consistent with other expertise research that has shown the expert advantage to be related to acquired processing strategies (e.g. Abernethy et al., 1994). An information-processing perspective is adopted to discuss these advantages in terms of training strategies and changes to the current gymnastic judging system. Copyright

Effects of self-modeling on figure skating jump performance and psychological variables

Abstract This study investigated whether self-modeling plus physical practice would improve intermediate level figure skaters’ jump performance, as well as their self-efficacy, motivation, and state anxiety, when compared to physical practice alone. Twelve female figure skaters (M=13.4 years of age, SD=1.4) participated in a within-participant design where they received a self-modeling intervention for one jump and a control condition for another jump. They were also compared with a separate control group of 7 skaters (M=14.2 years of age, SD=2.35) who received no intervention. We hypothesized that skaters would show greater improvement in physical and psychological performance scores for jumps in the self-modeling condition than for jumps in the control conditions. We also hypothesized that increased self-efficacy and motivation and decreased state anxiety would mediate the relationship between self-modeling and physical performance. Counter to our predictions, no differences existed between the two conditions for the self-modeling group or between the self-modeling group and the control group. Despite the lack of statistical support for our hypotheses, skaters’ evaluation of the intervention was very positive and suggests possible explanations for the results.

Feedforward Self-Modeling Enhances Skill Acquisition in Children Learning Trampoline Skills

The purpose of this research was to examine whether children would benefit from a feedforward self-modeling (FSM) video and to explore possible explanatory mechanisms for the potential benefits, using a self-regulation framework. To this end, children were involved in learning two five-skill trampoline routines. For one of the routines, a FSM video was provided during acquisition, whereas only verbal instructions were provided for the alternate routine. The FSM involved editing video footage such that it showed the learner performing the trampoline routine at a higher skill level than their current capability. Analyses of the data showed that while physical performance benefits were observed for the routine that was learned with the FSM video, no differences were obtained in relation to the self-regulatory measures. Thus, the FSM video enhanced motor skill acquisition, but this could not be explained by changes to the varied self-regulatory processes examined.

Process dissociation procedure: Memory testing in populations with brain damage

Abstract During the last 25 years, dissociations in performance on indirect and direct tests of memory have typically been used to describe memory ability in amnesics. Unfortunately, these tests are not pure measures of processes. Rather than identifying processes with tasks, we use the “process dissociation procedure” (Jacoby, 1991) to separate contributions of automatic and consciously controlled memory processes in a brain-damaged population. Our results show that brain damage impairs consciously controlled processing, however, automatic uses of memory remain unaffected. In the discussion, we describe the advantages of using this procedure as a sensitive diagnostic memory test, as well as implications for memory retraining.

Learner-Controlled Self-Observation is Advantageous for Motor Skill Acquisition

There were two main objectives of this research. First, we wanted to examine whether video feedback of the self (self-observation) was more effective for motor skill learning when the choice to view the video was provided to the learner (learner-controlled, LC) as opposed to an experimenter-controlled (EC) delivery. Secondly, we explored whether there were differences in the self-regulatory processes of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, as well as perceived choice between the LC and EC conditions. Two groups (LC and EC) of children (M age of 11.2 years; SD = 1.89) attempted to learn a progression of trampoline skills during a 2-day acquisition phase in which video self-observation was available. The second acquisition day was followed by a no self-observation retention test 1 day later. It was hypothesized that, during retention, the LC group would be more self-efficacious about their ability to progress through the trampoline skills, show greater intrinsic motivation and perceived choice, and go further in skill progression than the EC group. Analysis of the acquisition data showed the LC group had greater increases in self-efficacy as compared to the EC group. Results of the retention test showed that the participants in the LC group obtained higher scores on the intrinsic motivation and perceived choice measures and had higher skill progression scores as compared to the EC group. Regression analysis showed that group assignment and self-efficacy were significant predictors of the physical performance benefits noted in retention. These findings are discussed within Zimmerman’s (2004) self-regulation of learning model.

Self-controlled feedback is effective if it is based on the learner's performance: a replication and extension of Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005)

The learning advantages of self-controlled feedback schedules compared to yoked schedules have been attributed to motivational influences and/or information processing activities with many researchers adopting the motivational perspective in recent years. Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2005) found that feedback decisions made before (Self-Before) or after a trial (Self-After) resulted in similar retention performance, but superior transfer performance resulted when the decision to receive feedback occurred after a trial. They suggested that the superior skill transfer of the Self-After group likely emerged from information processing activities such as error estimation. However, the lack of yoked groups and a measure of error estimation in their experimental design prevents conclusions being made regarding the underlying mechanisms of why self-controlled feedback schedules optimize learning. Here, we revisited Chiviacowsky and Wulf’s (2005) design to investigate the learning benefits of self-controlled feedback schedules. We replicated their Self-Before and Self-After groups, but added a Self-Both group that was able to request feedback before a trial, but could then change or stay with their original choice after the trial. Importantly, yoked groups were included for the three self-controlled groups to address the previously stated methodological limitation and error estimations were included to examine whether self-controlling feedback facilitates a more accurate error detection and correction mechanism. The Self-After and Self-Before groups demonstrated similar accuracy in physical performance and error estimation scores in retention and transfer, and both groups were significantly more accurate than the Self-Before group and their respective Yoked groups (p’s < 0.05). Further, the Self-Before group was not significantly different from their yoked counterparts (p’s > 0.05). We suggest these findings further indicate that informational factors associated with the processing of feedback for the development of one’s error detection and correction mechanism, rather than motivational processes are more critical for why self-controlled feedback schedules optimize motor learning.