Amélia Martins Delgado

Greens and Other Vegetable Foods

This food category is predominant in a Mediterranean diet pattern. The term ‘vegetable food’ includes a highly heterogeneous variety of food items, such as leafy vegetables and analogues, tomato, pumpkin, wild leaf vegetables and weeds, aromatic plants and spices, starchy foods, pulses, fresh fruits and nuts. The nutrient composition taken from two different databases (one in the European Union and the other in the USA) is described and discussed. Some of these foods are consumed as energy sources (such as wheat, rice and potato), as protein sources (pulses) or as a mineral and vitamin supply (greens and fruits). Nevertheless, all have complex compositions supplying a wide variety of nutrients. Given the variety of a large number of factors, from the climate to analytical methodologies, the figures on the composition of food items (obtained from the food databases) should be regarded solely as guidance. Nevertheless, the concentration of the so-called minor components in each food item is highlighted, given the increased awareness of their roles in human health and wellness. In this regard, increasing levels of scientific evidence are being collected on the benefits conveyed by oligosaccharides, dietary fibres, flavonoids (e.g. phytosterols), as well as by many other phytochemicals. In this regard, the European Food Safety Authority granted walnuts a health claim related to cardiovascular health. Many epidemiological studies have correlated a high intake of greens, fruits and other vegetables with lower incidence rates of many non-communicable diseases and lighter body weight. This chapter also makes mention of compounds specific to certain vegetable species and their effects on health. Synergies between several vegetable foods for improved bioavailability and nutraceutical effects of some compounds are also mentioned.

Food Crises and Food Safety Incidents in European Union, United States, and Maghreb Area: Current Risk Communication Strategies and New Approaches

Globalization has created a dynamic market, which has dramatically intensified interchanges of goods and information as well as the flow of people among nations. This international phenomenon offers the consumer a choice between a wide variety of foods from diverse locations. However, there are challenges to improving food security and safety on a global scale; the major question is how food safety can be guaranteed while increasing the complexity of food supply chains. A food produced in a certain location usually contains ingredients, additives, and preservatives from different and distant origins. Although countries take several food control measures, their institutional and regulatory frameworks diverge widely, as do the definitions of food crisis, food incidents, and risk management approaches. The present review discusses some past food safety issues and lessons learned. Convergences and differences in the regulatory framework of food control agencies in different regions of the world are herein revealed. Emerging risks are also discussed, particularly the spread of antibiotic resistance in the food chain and the environment, as well as the rise of new antibiotic-resistant pathogenic strains with broader tolerance to environmental factors.

Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet

This chapter discusses the desirable features of the Mediterranean diet (MD) and the current evolution of food habits in the countries forming the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization MD Representative List. Several dietary indexes that measure adherence to the MD are presented and discussed for the countries of the area, as well as from a global perspective. The concept of ‘dietary pattern’ is used here as an integrated approach enabling the identification and quantification of associations between the ‘overall diet’ and specific health/disease outcomes. Some negative effects of adopting a so-called Western or globalized diet are highlighted, namely the increased proportion of processed energy-dense foods in the daily diet, along with a decreasing trend in the consumption of green vegetables and fresh fruits. These behavioural changes can be the result of a dietary transition, in this case with deleterious consequences. On the other hand, the analysis of nutritional epidemiology studies, complemented with information provided by studies at cellular and/or molecular levels, enables the discussion of the multiple associations between the MD, health, well-being and longevity.

Food and Nutrient Features of the Mediterranean Diet

This chapter describes the Mediterranean food pattern as rich in vegetables and characterised by a high consumption of olive oil and a reduced intake of meat and dairy products, particularly liquid milk. The so-called good Mediterranean diet corresponds to the dietary pattern found in the olive-growing areas of the Mediterranean region. The concept is linked to rural communities experiencing a period of economic depression after World War II and before the wide dissemination of the fast-food culture. Despite regional variations, common components and cultural aspects can be identified, namely olive oil as the main source of lipids, the consumption of large amounts of seasonal vegetables, fruits and aromatic herbs (some of them gathered from the wild), as well as small intakes of meat and fish, often replaced or complemented with pulses, as sources of protein. Several global and governmental organizations acknowledge the Mediterranean diet as nutritionally adequate, health-promoting and sustainable because of its emphasis on biodiversity and the intake of small meat portions. In short, Mediterranean-style dietary patterns score highly for health, as well as for estimated sustainability scores, and can be followed in Mediterranean as well as in non-Mediterranean countries.

Fish, Meat and Other Animal Protein Sources

The Mediterranean dietary pattern is based on a reduced intake of foods of animal origin, which provide essential amino acids (those the human body is unable to synthesize), as well as certain minerals and vitamins that are difficult to find or have a reduced bioavailability in vegetables. In this regard, fish is preferable to meat as a protein source, since the associated fats are mainly long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, with a predominance of n-3, as in sardines, anchovies and codfish. The Mediterranean Sea is less rich in fish than the Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic coast is important to Portugal, Spain and Morocco, and Portugal and Spain are among the largest consumers of fish and seafood in the world. It is noteworthy that the composition of meat is highly dependent on how the animal was fed and grown and on the butcher’s cut. In this regard, a lean steak from cows raised in the open air via extensive systems can be less deleterious to health than a piece of broiler chicken raised under an intensive system. In certain cases, total fat can be lower in beef (e.g. lean steak) than in a piece of chicken. Ancient meat preservation methods have been developed mainly for pork and rely on seasoning, smoking, fermentation and drying steps, aiming at reducing pH and water activity, which, in combination with spices, restricts microbial growth. Nowadays, some preservatives are allowed, even in ‘Protected Designation of Origin’ products as chorizo, salami and jamon iberico. The intake of large portions of meat is viewed by many as related to a high socioeconomic status, but excess meat is deleterious to health because of the accumulation of acidic deamination products such as uric acid, which becomes more difficult to eliminate with age, leading to gout, urate kidney stones and other ailments. Moderation of animal protein consumption and an increase in the ratio of vegetables to animal proteins may confer health-protective effects and result in a balanced diet.

Milk and Dairy Products

Milk is the first food of mammals, and breastfeeding has recently been found to be determinant in building up a healthy microbiome. A healthy adult is thought to carry about 2 kg of bacteria in the intestine, affecting immunity, weight balance and even mood. Small ruminants are well adapted to the mountains of the Mediterranean region and are easily handled by small rural communities. Traditional dairy products of these communities are yoghurt and cheese produced from the milk of these small ruminants. Cheese is an ancient fermented food valued for its portability, its longer shelf life than milk, and also for its nutritional value resulting from high amounts of protein, fat, calcium and phosphorus. Cheese also contains essential fatty acids, short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate) and bioactive peptides (released from the breakdown of caseins). These compounds accumulate during ripening and some of them result from microbial metabolism. In particular, short chain fatty acids and bioactive peptides have recently been noted as beneficial to health and wellness. Many cheeses hold protected designations of origin (PDO), granted by the European Commission, such as ‘Mozzarella di Bufala Campana’, ‘Feta’, ‘Queijo Serra da Estrela’, or ‘Queso de Murcia’. On the other hand, yoghurt is a typical example of a probiotic dairy food. Even if no bifidobacteria or other selected probiotic strains are added, the normal combination of lactic acid bacteria used to ferment milk to yoghurt has the ability to positively affect gut microbiota. Moreover, fermented dairy products are low in lactose, the digestibility of which usually decreases with age. In short, moderate consumption of dairy products, particularly fermented foods, helps provide essential amino acids and some vitamins that may be rare or absent in vegetables. On the other hand, oligosaccharides and dietary fibres (from vegetables) improve the survival of probiotics of dairy origin.

Food Additives for Analogue Cheeses and Traceability: The ExTra Tool

This chapter is explicitly dedicated to a particular and multi-faceted category of entering raw materials (input data) for the production of processed cheeses and cheese imitation products. The entering information in a traceability (tracking and tracing) system for these products has to concern many possible ingredients, including food additives. Different chemicals may be added with various functions when speaking of processed cheeses, but the production of analogue cheeses appears more interesting. In general, the classification of food additives takes into account the particular function(s) these compounds are expected to perform during the production and in the subsequent steps. Moreover, the proposed use of these compounds has to be declared on food labels. At the same time, traceability has to take these information—specific for each possible additive—into account. The aim of this chapter is to describe the complex operations—named joint ‘traceability’—with exclusive concern to ‘minor’ ingredients (food additives) by means of a software product: the ExTra tool. Discussed simulated products are a processed cheese and a general imitation cheese.

The ExTra Tool—Practical Simulations of Traceability for Cheese Packaging Materials

The world of food-contact materials and objects is continually evolving at present because of different exigencies that could be defined ‘needs’, including extended shelf-life values, marketing targets and other minor factors. The role of these materials as accessory ingredients of a specific food product is no longer accepted, and the European Union has recently issued the (EC) Regulation No 1935/2004 in this ambit with concern to specific traceability systems and procedures for food-contact materials. As a result, the problem of traceability in food industries concerns food ingredients, additives and other substances that should be defined ‘edible’ and food packaging materials on the other hand. This innovation has an important impact on the management of food business operators, including non-food industries producing articles for the food industry. Traceability is one of the main pillars of the modern food safety strategy worldwide. In addition, because of the complexity of different food sectors and sub-sectors, foods and beverages cannot be managed in the same way when speaking of processed meats, eggs, seafood products, cheeses and so on. As a result, the matter is new enough and should be discussed critically, and the ambit of cheese products is interesting. With concern to packaged cheese products, the aim of this chapter is to describe in practice the complex operations—named jointly ‘traceability’—related to food-contact materials used. Three case studies are evaluated in this ambit, with concern to different cheeses and food packaging materials. The flow of input and output information is critically discussed and analysed when speaking of information complexity.

Food Traceability System in Europe: Basic and Regulatory Requirements

The role of food traceability systems is critical because of required high standards for foods and beverages. With relation to the industry of cheeses, traceability tools have to take into account the existing regulatory framework, and the European Union has provided a significant contribution in this ambit concerning cheese products and dedicated food-contact materials for cheeses. The aim of this chapter is to provide a detailed overview of the current European regulatory framework. The approach to the European food legislation, regulated on multiple levels, seems to be very intricate because of the enormous amount of technical and very detailed provisions. This legislation can be analysed on two different levels. The first level concerns powers for public authorities and consequently the power of implementing and enforcing food law (information and risk communication, scientific risk assessment and emergency measures). The second one regards the requirements for food business operators. These requirements can be grouped into three different sub-categories: legislation concerning the product, legislation concerning the process (including withdrawal and recall procedures) and legislation with relation to the presentation of food products (labelling, publicity, risk communication). The last point is essential for the final consumer. The above-mentioned requirements, listed in the Regulation (CE) No 178/2002 (the backbone of the whole food security discipline in the EU), are critically discussed with concern to different topics: protection of consumers’ health, alerts at the European level, labelling requirements and traceability.

Raw Materials in the Cheesemaking Field and Related Input Data in the Traceability

The liberalisation of the European Union food market and the globalisation have increased the need of safety guarantees in the area of food safety. Consumers demand enhanced safety and hygiene assurance. Transparency, product quality and safety along the dairy supply chain could be reached by the application of specific standards and proper mechanisms such as traceability tools. The role of traceability is critical in supply chain management. With peculiar reference to the milk and dairy sector, Europe has a leading position in this area. The essential segments of each dairy supply chain can be easily identified, including dairy farms, dairy processing companies, wholesalers, retailers and the final consumers. With relation to the traceability of cheese products only, a joint work of the interested food business operators is implicit. In some situations, the system may have a ‘chain leader’ coordinating the whole food supply chain; alternatively, different food business operators may cooperate without a leading subject. It has to be noted that information technology-assisted software may be helpful in the management of similar systems. In addition, the authenticity of raw materials may be assessed at the analytical level. Finally, the role of some national institutions should be considered when speaking of traceability: the Italian example (mandatory declaration of milk origin on cheese labels) is discussed.