Andrea Milan

Livelihood and migration patterns at different altitudes in the central highlands of Peru

The relationship between climate change, environmental change and migration in mountain areas is a relatively understudied research topic, particularly from an empirical point of view. This article aims at contributing to the literature by analysing the relationship between increasing rainfall variability, livelihoods and human mobility in three rural communities located in the Central Highlands of Peru. Traditional rain-fed agriculture is the most important economic activity in the area. This article highlights differences in livelihood and human mobility patterns between households located at different altitudes. While at higher altitudes (above 3900 m.a.s.l.) non-agricultural diversification is limited, at lower altitudes (up to 3600 m.a.s.l.) non-agricultural diversification is widespread and income from non-agricultural activities exceeds agricultural income. In this rural–urban context, rainfall patterns influence local livelihoods and migration decisions through their effect on agricultural production. More than four-fifths of the population noted changes in rainfall patterns and their negative effect on livelihoods. However, mobility patterns in the area are determined primarily by broader economic considerations. In the lowlands, one or more members of most households commute daily to work in the city of Huancayo. In the highlands, households (or some of its members) often resettle there. In both cases, circular migration patterns (including daily mobility) can be identified and households combine the scarce income from agricultural production with urban income rather than abandoning the farming land.

Rainfall variability, food insecurity and migration in Cabricán, Guatemala

This article presents data and insights on rainfall variability, food insecurity and migration in four rural mountain communities in the Western Highlands of Guatemala. In mountain areas, climatic patterns and impacts change over short distances and no meteorological station is located within the range of a few kilometres from the selected communities. Therefore, rainfall patterns and impacts were investigated with local communities in a participatory way. Rainfall is crucial for local livelihoods because their most important source of food is the yearly harvest of a rain-fed corn-based crop sub-system called milpa. The great majority of survey respondents and participants in the participatory research approach sessions believe that climatic conditions have worsened in the last 20 years and are affecting their food production. They also remarked that the profitability of in situ diversification options is decreasing and associated with decreasing migration opportunities. These trends expose local populations to the risk of becoming trapped in the near future in a place where they are extremely vulnerable to climate change. In fact, no long-term risk-management and livelihood diversification strategy, including ex situ strategies, seems to be sustainable for people in the study area.

Human mobility in response to rainfall variability: opportunities for migration as a successful adaptation strategy in eight case studies

This article analyses the dynamics between rainfall variability, food insecurity and human mobility in eight case studies, namely Ghana, Tanzania, Guatemala, Peru, Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Vietnam. It covers a large spectrum of rainfall-related climatic events, including floods, drought, seasonal shifts and dry spells, and their impact on food insecurity and in turn on human mobility in approximately 1300 households in the eight case studies. It also summarizes the outcomes of focus group discussions and participatory research approach sessions held with communities in the villages that are affected by rainfall variability. The article compares the outcomes of the case studies and identifies the similarities and areas of overlap. It concludes that for some households – regardless of the case study – there is high potential for migration to be a successful adaptation strategy. Some other households rather find it hard to adapt to the situation in situ; among them, some cannot afford moving to other areas to improve their livelihoods and remain ‘trapped’ while others do move, but barely survive or are even subject to worse conditions. The article provides policy recommendations for policy-makers and practitioners that might be applicable for these, and also other countries exposed to the same climatic issues. Finally, the article provides an outlook with lessons learned for the benefit of future research.

Circular Migration and Local Adaptation in the Mountainous Community of Las Palomas (Mexico)

Recent literature highlights the potential of migration as a part of successful adaptation strategies in the face of external stressors (Afifi et al., Migration and development, 2015; Bardsley and Hugo, Population Environ 32(2–3):238–262, 2010; Black et al., Nature 478(7370):447–449, 2011; McLeman and Smit, Clim Change 76:31–53, 2010; Tacoli, Environ Urbaniz 21:513–525, 2009). However, few studies have explored mobility patterns in mountain areas in the context of climate and environmental change (Kollmair and Banerjee, Drivers of migration in mountainous regions of the developing world: a review. Foresight: Migration and global environmental change driver review 9. Government Office for Science, London, 2010; Milan et al., Earth Syst Dyn 6(1):375, 2015a). This chapter explores the potential of circular migration programs as part of household strategies to diversify livelihoods and manage risks associated with environmental and climate change in Las Palomas, a village belonging to the municipality of Xichu, in Central Mexico. Additionally, this research examines various agricultural adaptation and capacity-building mechanisms which could heighten the resilience of Las Palomas. Based on primary qualitative data collected in December 2013, the results of this study suggest that well-conceived circular migration schemes could increase the adaptive capacity of Las Palomas to external stressors. In particular, the authors argue that sending one or more migrants abroad as a risk management strategy at the household level can allow the rest of the household to stay where they are and to increase their adaptive capacity through increased income and livelihood risks reduction. In addition, this chapter suggest several traditional agricultural methods through which households in Las Palomas could improve their resilience and eventually decrease their dependence on external sources of revenues such as remittances and governmental support.

Human Mobility and Adaptation: Reducing Susceptibility to Climatic Stressors and Mainstreaming

Worldwide, climate-sensitive livelihoods (such as farming, fishing and herding) are under pressure from changes in weather patterns. As people observe these changes, they undertake adaptive measures with the goal of avoiding or reducing the negative impacts of climatic stressors on their development goals (like food consumption, livelihood diversification, education and health). This chapter explores the factors that affect climate sensitivity and migration decisions, and how these factors relate to adaptation mainstreaming.