Christian Calliess

Precautionary Principle and Nanomaterials: REACH Revisited

Throughout 2011 several institutions endorsed the concept of establishing a European nanoproduct database, 1 which would enable consumers and government officials alike to determine which consumer products contain nanomaterials. In keeping with the precautionary principle this would allow measures to be taken in the event of the recovery of a potential risk in the future. 2 For while the scope of EU regulatory activities has increased, an instrument is lacking that would across all sectors allow both consumers and government officials to obtain a clear idea of which products contain nanomaterials. This approach would also be in keeping with REACH, 3 which also applies regardless of the sector and lays down regulations concerning chemicals and thus also applies to nanomaterials by virtue of their being a specific embodiment of chemicals. However, as all concerned agree, REACH exhibits a certain number of deficiencies when it comes to nanomaterial regulation. The present paper discusses these deficiencies in light of the precautionary principle and at the same time addresses the issue as to whether reforming REACH would obviate the need to establish an online public nanoproduct database.

Multilevel Energy Policy in the EU: Paving the Way for Renewables?

The legal and political interrelations between national and EU energy policy competencies and the actual policies are multifaceted. In order to understand those interrelations properly one has to analyse both the formal competencies of the EU as enshrined in the Lisbon Treaty and the actual EU policies with their direct and indirect impact on the choice of energy sources. The Treaty grants the EU competence as regards (a) the functioning of the energy market; (b) security of energy supply in the Union; (c) promotion of energy efficiency and energy saving and the development of new and renewable forms of energy; and (d) promotion of the interconnection of energy networks. However, Member States remain in control of choosing between different energy sources and the general structure of their energy supply. Any decision affecting this national competence must be adopted by a unanimous vote of the European Council. EU renewable energy support policy needs to develop within the framework of these mixed and multifaceted competences. Our overall argument is that easy fixes do not work. Considering the different national preferences regarding the energy mix, it is premature to ask for a full-fledged EU energy competence leading to a harmonised support system for renewables. Besides which, the emerging climate and renewables policies could also be a driver for deepened energy integration – rather as a bottom-up than a top-down process. In that sense a framework for 2030 with clear goals for climate mitigation, renewables shares and efficiency are of pivotal importance for the transition towards a low carbon economy by 2050.

Die grundrechtliche Schutzpflicht im mehrpoligen Verfassungsrechtsverhältnis

Wie die aktuelle Debatte um die Verfassungskonformitat des Luftsicherheitsgesetzes zeigt, werden gesetzgeberische Entscheidungen zumeist aus der abwehrrechtlichen Perspektive der Grundrechte in Frage gestellt und vom BVerfG uberpruft. Der Beitrag schlagt eine Erweiterung dieser Perspektive vor, die grundrechtliches Abwehrrecht der einen Burger und grundrechtliche Schutzpflicht des Staates gegenuber den anderen Burgern im Rahmen eines mehrpoligen Verfassungsrechtsverhaltnisses in den Blick nimmt.

Die Rolle des Grundgesetzes und des Bundesverfassungsgerichts

Das Grundgesetz (GG) konzipiert die Bundesrepublik Deutschland als offenen Verfassungsstaat. Geprägt von den Erfahrungen zweier Weltkriege und der im Zuge der NSDiktatur begangenen Verbrechen sahen die Mütter und Väter der deutschen Verfassung die Zukunft Deutschlands in einem Staatswesen, das sich in die internationale Staatengemeinschaft und ihr Wertesystem integriert. Im Hinblick auf die Perspektive der europäischen Integration unternahm der Verfassungsgeber sogar noch einen bis dahin neuen Schritt, indem er die Übertragung von Hoheitsgewalt auf eine internationale Organisation möglich machte. Auf dieser Basis konnte Deutschland von der Montanunion angefangen bis hin zur heutigen Europäischen Union erfolgreich bei der Gestaltung eines vereinten Europas mitwirken. Die so skizzierte Konzeption des offenen Verfassungsstaates war aus heutiger Sicht geradezu visionär. Sie birgt aber auch ganz neue Herausforderungen für das staatliche Verfassungsrecht. Diese reichen weit über die klassischen Politikfelder der sogenannten ,Auswärtigen Gewalt‘ in Form der Außen-, Handels-, Sicherheitsund Verteidigungspolitik hinaus. Im Kontext der Globalisierung und Europäisierung geht es insoweit längst um die gemeinsame Wahrnehmung von Aufgaben der Innenpolitik in internationalen Organisationen, angefangen von der Umwelt-, Gesundheitsund Verbraucherschutzpolitik bis hin zur Regulierung der Finanzmärkte. Mit den damit verbundenen Einwirkungen des internationalen und europäischen Rechts auf den Freiheitsschutz des Einzelnen und das demokratische Zustandekommen von politischen Entscheidungen sowie dem Verlust beziehungsweise der Veränderung von souveräner Staatlichkeit ergeben sich für unser Verfassungsrecht ganz neue Perspektiven und Aufgaben. Dies gilt vor allem für die Europapolitik, bei der es sich inzwischen um eine neuartige Form der „europäisierten Innenpolitik“1 handelt.

Regulatory Cooperation in the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership TTIP – Thrill or Threat for the Environment?

By means of regulatory cooperation, TTIP is to increase the depth of cooperation between the EU and the USA on regulatory issues. This article sketches out the envisioned regulatory cooperation as far as this is possible based on the EU negotiating texts and assesses it from an environmental perspective. In this perspective particular attention need to be paid to differences in the stringency of regulation of sectors of environmental relevance (e.g. food, chemicals and cosmetics) in the US and the EU. As a result, adverse environmental impacts can only be avoided if harmonization takes place at a high level. Sub-statutory regulations and private sector standardization such as ISO standards may also be of considerable environmental relevance. The example of manipulated vehicle emissions of nitrogen oxides shows how important even the apparently technical issue of effective verification of exhaust emissions can be for environmental protection. The criteria used to assess risks and deal with uncertainties are highly relevant. The precautionary principle embodied in German and European law can be found neither in US nor in international trade law. In should remain a part of TTIP (and more prominently so) and not be sacrificed in last minute negotiations.

The Dynamics of European Citizenship: From Bourgeois to Citoyen

In line with the constitutional moment of the Maastricht Treaty a shift from economic to political integration was started. With regard to the status of the citizen this prepared a change as well. Following from the ground breaking van Gend and Loos decision of the Court, the citizens of the Member States gained—corresponding to the goal of achieving an internal market—a rather functional status as market citizens. With the introduction of Union citizenship, this status widened to a more political status, defined by individual rights. The jurisdiction of the Court paved the way, by interpreting today’s Article 21 TFEU as an individual right and developing the status of the EU citizen by the principle of non discrimination independent from an economic context. This new dynamic of EU citizenship challenges at the same time political competences of the Member States. Consequently it might be time to rethink the relationship of Articles 20, 21 and 18 TFEU on the one hand as well as fundamental freedoms and fundamental rights on the other hand in the light of their function.